Sometimes there will be matching words between a target text and source text and these matching words might also encapsulate a potential benefit, but (unlike a direct reference) there is no apparent attempt to highlight these matching words. As such, it may be that the author of the target text found that particular source text to be
beneficial and borrowed words from it, but he/she did not attempt to communicate the source of this benefit to the reader(s). This type of potential reference is classified as an ‘echo’ in this study.86
While a direct reference is obvious, the identification of an echo is subjective because the matching words are not highlighted in any way. This subjectivity is illustrated by the fact that the UBS5 lists seven verbal parallels that were classified as potential echoes of the Septuagint by this present study but the NA28 lists thirteen potential echoes. However, since this study attempts to detect and classify all of the verbal parallels that are listed in these two standard editions of the Greek New Testament (as
84 George W. Knight III, The Pastoral Epistles (ed. I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque; Grand Rapids, Mich.: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999), 298.
85 ET: ‘One of their own prophets has said, ‘Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons.’’
86 A more detailed definition of an ‘echo’ is given following the explanation of all three reference types (i.e. at the end of Section 1.5.3).
part of the training of the syntax rules), the term ‘echo’ is used to classify verbal parallels that are not obvious but could have possibly influenced the author. (The numerous verbal parallels that have no potential benefit are not used to train the syntax rules but are simply discounted.)
The probability of each echo is estimated based on its level of verbal similarity and the measure of ‘satisfaction’ of the reference.87 Those that have a relatively large number of matching words are typically classified as ‘likely echoes,’ but those that only have a few matching words are typically classified as only ‘possible echoes.’ The following three examples from the Pastoral Epistles, which are listed in either the UBS5 or the NA28 (or both), have been selected in order to illustrate the type of verbal parallels that are classified as echoes within this study. The first example is found in 1 Tim 1:17, where the NA28 (but not the UBS5) lists verbal parallels with Tob 13:7, 11, as shown below:
Τῷ δὲ βασιλεῖ τῶν αἰώνων, ἀφθάρτῳ ἀοράτῳ µόνῳ θεῷ, τιµὴ καὶ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, ἀµήν88 (1 Tim 1:17)
καὶ ὑψώσατε τὸν βασιλέα τῶν αἰώνων89 (Tob 13:7b) εὐλόγει τὸν βασιλέα τῶν αἰώνων90 (Tob 13:11b)
Like the Epistle, the two verses in Tobit are in the context of praising God, meaning that the source and target text are thematically consistent (and so the source text is potentially beneficial).91 However, the borrowed words are not highlighted in the
87 The criterion of ‘satisfaction’ is adopted from Hays and is explicitly subjective. It is explained in Section 1.6.7. The classification process is explained in more detail in Section 1.7.
88 ET: ‘To the king of the ages, immortal invisible, only God, be honor and glory forever and ever, amen.’
89 ET: ‘Exalt the king of the ages.’ 90 ET: ‘Blessed be the king of the ages.’
target text (i.e. in 1 Tim 1:17) and there are only two matching root words.92
Consequently, these two verbal parallels are both classified as only ‘possible echoes.’ The second example is in 1 Tim 6:8-9, where the UBS5 (but not the NA28) lists a verbal parallel with Prov 30:8, as shown below:
ἔχοντες δὲ διατροφὰς καὶ σκεπάσµατα, τούτοις ἀρκεσθησόµεθα. οἱ δὲ βουλόµενοι πλουτεῖν ἐµπίπτουσιν εἰς πειρασµὸν καὶ παγίδα καὶ ἐπιθυµίας πολλὰς ἀνοήτους καὶ βλαβεράς, αἵτινες βυθίζουσιν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους εἰς ὄλεθρον καὶ ἀπώλειαν.93 (1 Tim 6:8-9) πλοῦτον δὲ καὶ πενίαν µή µοι δῷς, σύνταξον δέ µοι τὰ δέοντα καὶ τὰ αὐτάρκη, ἵνα µὴ πλησθεὶς ψευδὴς γένωµαι καὶ εἴπω Τίς µε ὁρᾷ; ἢ πενηθεὶς κλέψω καὶ ὀµόσω τὸ ὄνοµα τοῦ θεοῦ94 (Prov 30:8b-9)
The virtue of εὐσέβεια µετὰ αὐταρκείας (‘godliness with contentment’, 1 Tim 6:6) is extolled as the right balance to strive for in the Epistle, while the danger of
φιλαργυρία (‘love of money’, 1 Tim 6:10) is illustrated by citing the example of those who have ‘wandered away from the faith’ (1 Tim 6:10) because of a desire to be rich. As such, a reference to Prov 30, with its similar warning that riches can lead to apostasy,95 would benefit the Epistle by reinforcing the importance of contentment. However, there are only two matching root words, so this verbal parallel is also classified as just a ‘possible echo.’
92 Matching articles are highlighted in the texts but not counted as part of the matching ‘root words.’
93 ET: ‘But if we have food and clothing, with these things we will be content. But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation, into a trap, into many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction.’
94 ET: ‘Give me neither wealth nor poverty. Appoint for me the things that I need and contentment, in order that I not be wealthy and I become false and say “Who will see me?” or I be poor and steal and dishonor the name of God.’
95 This apostasy is clearer in the MT compared to the Septuagint where the slightly obscure sentence, ψευδὴς γένωµαι καὶ εἴπω Τίς µε ὁρᾷ (ET: ‘I might become false and say, “Who will see me?”’) stands in place ofיִתּ ְר ַ֗מאְָו ֮יִתְּשַׁחִכְוה֥ ָו ֫הְי יִ֥מ (ET: ‘And I deny you and I say, “Who [is] Yahweh?”’).
The third example is in 1 Tim 6:16, where both the UBS5 and NA28 list a verbal parallel to Exod 33:20. The similarity between the verses is highlighted below:
φῶς οἰκῶν ἀπρόσιτον, ὃν εἶδεν οὐδεὶς ἀνθρώπωνοὐδὲἰδεῖν δύναται·96 (1 Tim 6:16).
καὶ εἶπεν Οὐδυνήσῃ ἰδεῖν µου τὸ πρόσωπον· οὐ γὰρ µὴἴδῃ ἄνθρωπος τὸ πρόσωπόν µου καὶ ζήσεται97 (Exod 33:20)
The following verse from the source text (i.e. Exod 33:21) is cited in Rom 9:15, suggesting that this passage may have been familiar to the early church. The verbal similarity is relatively high, making the possibility of a reference ‘likely.’ However, the matching words are found in separate clauses of the source text, meaning that there is no apparent quotation or paraphrase that would seem to make the source text obvious, and so it is classified as a ‘likely echo’ rather than a direct reference.
These three examples of potential echoes highlight how this study classifies the type of verbal parallels in the NA28 and UBS5 (as well as the additional verbal parallels that are detected by the method) where the source text appears to have been influential but there is no apparent attempt to highlight these words. This makes echoes highly subjective, but still of interest to exegetes. The final reference type, indirect references, also incorporates a measure of subjectivity.