The terracotta quarter or kerameikos of Selinous was set to the east of the town and separated from it by an uninhabited area, but still within its city walls. The location in the valley along the Cotone river, near the clay deposits in the east and
725 Not inventoried figurine: N. I. 7. 726 Dewailly 1992, p. 101-2.
a water drain, was not chosen at random.727 A gate on the
north side protected and connected the kerameikos to the
inland, while the port on the south side directly outside the walls facilitated transportation of the goods over the sea. Both the seaside and the river formed possible resources of clay, sand, mineral and water applied in the production of terracotta. The long stretched area, the size of half a housing block, contained several workshops for different terracotta products that was industrial in scale. For the production of the hand-size figurines, the location across the so-called East Sanctuary728 with three monumental temples created a
direct market, positioned nearby.
The location close to the East Sanctuary implies that potential customers were directly approached by the coroplasts or their employees. The scale of the industry is surprising but could be explained by the local market for the products and the trendsetting innovations that spread from here over the eastern part of Sicily. An architectural structure on the highest terrace is thought to have been the warehouse or shop, where the figurines were sold to the passing devotees. Intermediaries might have transported the votives to, for example, the Malophoros Sanctuary, where indeed a large number of figurines was found. Another possibility is that the dedicants would have acquired their votives on their way, carrying the objects that are usually not over thirty centimetres tall and of relatively low weight. In itself, this could have been regarded as cultic handling or part of the act of dedication. The organised industries were a result of intensified production serving the increased demand and had definite implications for the local economy.
The nearby port facilitated transportation of larger architectural terracottas produced at the terracotta quarter.729 A kiln measuring 5.3m in diameter functioned
probably for firing roof terracottas. The workshop with this large oven was preserved so well that its interior can be reconstructed. The water resource in a corner of the workshop facilitated the softening and kneading of the clay, which was done in large bowls. On the other side, a tumbled over wooden shelf held containers of probably the clay tempers, such as sand or ground marlstone. A plate on a foot may have eased the coroplasts’ work on three-dimensional objects. Apart from that, the remains of objects connected to food preparation were found. This may be an indication for long working hours, which necessitated facilities in the workshop for preparing
727 The present name used by archaeologists for this part is Insula S16/17-E, of which the southern half forms the terracotta production quarter. S16-E is a street connected with a large open space. Over time, when the industries grew larger the quarter was extended along the wall.
728 There are three monumental temples here: E, F and G dating from the sixth and fifth century BCE.
and eating food. A small altar with several figurines730
also demonstrates that religious needs were met at the workshop. Two of the statuettes represent an enthroned goddess from the second half of the fifth century BCE.731
The portable objects were originally set up in a niche in the wall, together with miniature vessels and a treasury with some coins that confirm the period.
This industrial area dates from the mid of the sixth century BCE and activities continued after a renovation in the fifth century BCE until the Carthaginians destroyed the city in 409 BCE. The terracotta hand labour was well structured over four sections (terraces A-D) of a terrain measuring over 1200m². A total of seventy kilns, both rectangular and circular, most of them measuring more than two meters, were localised by geomagnetic detection. A part of the terrain has been excavated and a workshop brought to light. There are several working spaces and the complex holds large open spaces that might have facilitated the drying process and storage. The terracotta workshops were up to now thought to be small businesses run by extended family, even though it concerns serial production. This large space and production centre proves different for the case of Selinous.732 Due to the scale of
production, we may speak of mass production, though the main production method was manual production employing a large number of people, who directly or indirectly lived from the terracotta industries.
The oldest phase of the terrain in the eastern end of the insula, from the sixth century BCE, was separated by a wall that was demolished when space was required for two rectangular kilns. One of them was later levelled to build a larger kiln, in which three phases of use have been detected. In the lowest level, figurine fragments from the same mould have been found, dating from the third quarter of the sixth century BCE. The fired fragments are of at least twenty-two figurines of a Daedalic kore733 and
were discarded. This could indicate that the figurines were collected to be fired together with possibly larger objects, in order to fill the space left in the kiln. The fact that all figurines are from the same mould shows the scale of production for a similarly scaled market.734 Figurative
objects were produced in this workshop from an early stage and in large quantities. They were found here together with several other fragments of figurines and
730 The figurines are identified by Bentz as Athena, Demeter, Artemis, and a smaller male figure.
731 The folds of her dress indicate this date, but otherwise one of the figurines is quite comparable to the Akragantine figurines. She sits in a similar pose, rather rigidly, on an elaborate throne with cushion or lion paws and a footstool. Bentz et al. 2016, fig. 17 and 18. 732 Bentz 2015, p.63.
733 For an extensive description and figure of this solid figurine that wears earrings and a necklace, see Bentz et al. 2014, p.69, n.4, fig.4. 734 Bentz et al. 2014, p.68-9.
tools for their production: a matrix, clay residues, the raw, unprepared clay, and small objects to keep the distance between the stacked objects in the kiln.735
The terracotta quarter must have played a large role in the economy of Selinous and its direct environment. The area contained about twenty large companies and some small ones and might have provided a living for at least a tenth of the inhabitants, including the families, as calculated.736 Not only did the monumental temple building
start in the second half of the sixth century BCE, but also houses were provided with roof tiles and households with pottery for daily use. The votives were certainly part of this wide variety of terracotta products on the market.737
The demand for terracotta figurines, the innovation of the moulding technique, the absence of high-quality stone material, and the presence of clay form the foundation of the expansion of terracotta production in the second half of the sixth century BCE.
The production location in the vicinity of the final destination of the terracotta figurines and near a gate for the delivery of the necessary material is comparable to the situation in Akragas, where two workshops have been found, both near the City Sanctuary. The first location, close to gate V, contained two kilns and yielded several moulds for figurines. This was probably a large-scale production workplace for terracotta figurines, as the two kilns might indicate. In continuous production, the firing process included, two kilns, fired alternately are involved. Although at first, the architectural structures were interpreted as a sanctuary, De Miro concludes that a workplace for terracotta figurine production is more likely.738 The uncertainty of the attribution was
caused because several figurines (58, 107, 108, 111, 139) were found on the spot next to moulds.739 It might seem
less probably to connect the presence of moulds to a sanctuary, but at a bothros in Himera several moulds were also dedicated.740 However, the number of moulds found, 735 There are several sorts, of which the wedge-shaped and perforated cylinders were the most common. They often have marks, which refer to the workshop or coroplast.
736 The numbers mentioned in this excavation report are as follows. Approximately 20,000 people lived in an area, Selinous, of 100 ha, in about 2,500 houses. This means that the average household would have been about 8 people. If about 2-3 people of each household were providing for it, the direct employees or workers were about 500-750 for 250 households. These numbers fit with the large-scale quarter that has been found and the labour intensive production of some of their products.
737 Bentz 2016, p.79. 738 De Miro 2000, p.42-3.
739 One example of a near-by deposit contained a mould as well, 90. See description of the other objects in this context. Griffo 1955, p.109-10.
740 Himera, Piano del Tamburino, at the votive deposit (ST 13-15) and bothros (ST11). Mango and Edel 2015, p.118, 120, Abb.2.
together with the presence of kilns at Akragas, points rather to a workshop than a sanctuary.741 Also, the other
workshop dates from the Archaic and Classical period and both are thus contemporary with the first phase of the Selinuntine terracotta quarter, which matches with the products in both towns. The second workshop would be an unpublished find from 1971 on the west side of the same hill.742 The workshop near Gate V might have been
small, but its production quite intense. It seems that the terracotta production at Selinous started earlier and reached a larger scale, and probably more industrialised organisation than Akragas. However, considering the number of figurines and their generations, the terracotta figurine business was also flourishing at Akragas. Another workshop near gate II was specialised in pottery.743 The
collective use of kilns to fire different sized clay products is not directly evidenced at Akragas. Unlike Selinous, the workshops were scattered. Specialisation could have been a reason for this situation. In the case of Akragas, distinctive techniques, like wheel- or mould-made models, were probably separated. Akragantine terracotta products do not show the application of combined techniques.744
In both cities, the production of figurines reached a peak in this period. It is probable that kilns were shared, particularly as the small objects could be used to fill the kiln. It seems likely that the coroplast was a specialist in figurines and would not have produced pottery or large architectural terracottas on the side. Other similar and mould-made categories like the protomes or plaques could well have been produced by the same coroplasts, as they were also produced using a mould. The customs and outcomes of the production of these small objects are clearly local. Though moulds were probably exchanged, the coroplasts were not itinerant, as other craftsmen may have been.745 This is
supported by the technical differences between objects of the same mould series from Akragas and Selinous.
III.12 Conclusions
This chapter investigated the material aspects of the Akragantine terracotta figurines. It reconstructs the
chaîne opératoire of these objects by making use of an archaeological experiment. Two methods were applied in this research to reveal the techniques applied in the late sixth and early fifth century BCE coroplastics. A method of deductive inquiry was combined with experimental
741 The excavations were carried out in the fifties by Pietro Griffo, but are not extensively published.
742 It is mentioned by Cuomo di Capri 1992, p.71. 743 Orsola 1991.
744 Except for a horse with a wheel-made body and handmade legs and head form a combination of the three methods, because it carries a mould-made couple on its back. Mus. Agrigento R220. See Section II.7.b.iii.
745 Rheeder 2019.
imitation. By carefully investigating specific features and traces on the figurines, the handling of both coroplasts and consumer was reconstructed, from clay to its application as a votive. Other hypotheses were also tested by experiment. Some of the trials in the experiment had surprising outcomes. Such features were noted first with the experimental figurines and could then be understood as consequences of specific approaches.
The first reason that the coroplastic art in Akragas could flourish is because of the availability of large quantities of high quality, local clays and, as a result of the first, the fine-tuned techniques and methods of the coroplasts. The availability of good materials and well- developed technology enabled the coroplasts to produce large amounts of fine and aesthetic figurines. The clay sourced at Macalube di Aragona was easily accessible and of excellent quality, as shown by the experimental results. Its fine-grained and compact structure makes it very suitable for the production of moulds and statuettes. The combination with the white marl of Scala dei Turchi creates, on the other hand, a very workable clay for the production of statuettes. Though it is time and labour intensive to grind, the resulting soft firing-colour might have been preferred over the more reddish colour as it seems more natural, closer to the colour of female skin. A disadvantage of this particular is the shrinkage rate of the material, while the addition of a grind temper increases the risk of lime-spalling. These determined recipes are thus good candidates for the production of the statuettes and can form a further guideline to determine the origins of raw material procurement for these statuettes and the relation with other ceramic materials, such as architectural ceramics and pottery.
A second reason for the flourishing coroplastic activity at Akragas and the high number of figurines is certainly the mechanical method of moulding, which was applied extensively. Moulding intensifies the production and in itself does not require much of the coroplasts’ artistic skills. Yet the coroplasts of Akragas can certainly not be blamed for a lack of artistic skill and originality. Their eye for detail and general experience in terracotta manufacture is proven by the detailed figurines. They exploited the artistic freedom available within the boundaries of the prescribed iconographic standards. Though dependent on moulds, the coroplasts developed technical and iconographic variation in design towards the end of the sixth and early fifth century BCE. Under these two conditions, Akragas could develop a thriving coroplastic industry.
From an economic perspective, the coroplastic activity offered a great cost-effective improvement compared to the production of their wooden predecessors. Inspired by the iconography of those and the technical aspects of a plaque, the several steps in the chaîne opératoire, from patrix via matrix to the final figurine, were well developed.
It is the moulding method in combination with the use of a clay slab for the back of the figurine that kept the statuettes rather two-dimensional in character for such a long time. The convex or column-shaped back does not reflect the anatomy of a human body but helped keep the figurine upright. In relation to this, is the question about form and function: were some details made as an intentional choice or were they simply a result of the moulding method? The answer differs depending on the detail and shows that improvements on the technical level went hand-in-hand with those on an iconographic level. The rendering of a more clearly seated posture and a more natural depiction of the human body appeared when the moulds became deeper and more three-dimensional. The moulding thus limited the iconographic possibilities while extending the scale of production. The balance between quantity and quality created the prerequisites for an affordable, but still fine figurine. It was probably not the customers who were requesting personalisation, but rather that moulds, in particular, the jewellery, were constantly being adapted to the latest styles. Such emulation and variation ensured the continuation and prospering of the business.
Differences in local techniques are distinctive: objects of similar iconography from Selinous have a vent hole in the back, while at Akragas an opening at the base is preferred. In both towns, the scale of production was large, but at Selinous the work was probably better organised and concentrated in one specific area, the kerameikos. Selinuntine coroplasts reached a comparatively high technical and organisational level, which served as an example for Akragantine coroplasts, resulting in the exchange of moulds and techniques. Within Akragas itself, several workshops can be distinguished such as the Workshop of the White Clay, the Workshop of the Convex Back Side, the Workshop of
the Straight Reworking, and the Workshop of the Chubby Faces and the One Pendant Necklace. The characteristics of their output are distinguishable by clay composition, rendering of the back, details of reworking, and the specific execution of the head. One of those details, for example, is a tight necklace, which was presumably added to cover the attachment of a separately moulded head. In addition, a specific necklace with a pendant could have functioned as a trademark of the workshop.
The high number of objects and workshops account for the presence of industrialised production, directly related to the market requesting the objects. Religiosity and the custom of dedication provided such an impulse. On form and function, the morphology of the figurines was largely dictated by the technological methods used and the religiously prescribed iconographic standards for such votives.
Migration might have resulted in the introduction of the method of moulding and the use of terracotta as a material for votives. Exchange of products could have influenced the specific techniques applied in the production. Remaining questions, such as on the origin of certain features could be answered by research on the exact clay composition of individual moulds and figurines. The different consistency of the clay is the result of the mixing of clays, probably taken from sites near to Akragas. A study of the chemical composition of the figurines might provide insight into the origin of clays and differences between terracotta objects from Selinous and Akragas or even from workshops within one the towns. The precise chemical composition could be determined by various geo-chemical techniques, such as X-ray fluorescence. The origin of both the raw materials as well as certain morphologies could in that way be distinguished more precisely.