The previous chapters introduced the background and some of the challenges with access to Advanced Placement programming for Black and Latinx students. Emergent themes were identified through a review of the literature, and with that, posed research questions for case study research and created a conceptual framework through which I would examine those questions. In this chapter, I will discuss the methods of research for the case study.
In order to explore and explain what barriers exist for Black and Latinx students and what measures school leaders take to both increase access and support Black and Latinx student populations in Advanced Placement coursework, this research used an instrumental, embedded case study design. This is an embedded case study because there are two units of analysis (each high school) within the larger case (the district) that will help inform the study (Yin, 2009). Additionally, the study is instrumental in nature in that the research questions seek to create a better understanding of something occurring within the district (Merriam, 2009; Stake, 1995). More specifically, the aim of the research is to better understand the access-related barriers for Black and Latinx students and the role of school leaders in addressing those barriers.
In addressing and answering the questions that identify barriers and explore antiracist leadership practices that support underrepresented student involvement and success in AP coursework, descriptive data was collected on student populations and AP enrollment.
Additionally, a series of interviews were conducted with district and school leaders and teachers with regard to implementation and oversight of supports and programming. I also had access to secondary survey data from the teachers and students in each of the schools. This data assessed attitudes about enrollment in AP courses and beliefs about mindsets and supports. Finally, I
conducted two focus groups at one of the high schools with Black and Latinx students who are currently enrolled in AP coursework. The subsections below will explain the research methods in greater detail.
Research Questions
1. What racial inequities exist within the district and schools that prevent retention and success for Black and Latinx student populations in AP courses?
2. How do the school leaders effectively address racial inequities that exist within the academic culture of the high school environment?
Sub-question: How do Black and Latinx students perceive the ways in which racial inequities are addressed within the academic culture of the high school environment? Methodology
This proposed study employed primarily qualitative methods using an embedded case study design. Yin (2009) explained a case study is research that “investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 19). For the purpose of this research, through secondary data, interviews and focus groups, and observations, I established the context of Black and Latinx students’ access to supports and achievement in Advanced Placement classes. Additionally, I contextualized the leadership practices (e.g., decision-making process, development, meetings) that increase student access. Given Yin’s definition, it is clear this research lent itself to embedded case study for several reasons. Whether the phenomena examined is related to enrollment, achievement, or attitudes within the culture of the school, there are programs and leadership behaviors within each of the schools in the district that may be attributed to success or lack thereof. The embedded case study will allow me to examine the application of district initiatives within two schools and possibly identify a relationship between tactics school personnel employ and the effect of those tactics on student enrollment and access.
Analysis of particular phenomena within sites necessitated gathering further information (e.g., secondary survey data, focus groups) in order to explain outcomes. Yin (2009) noted embedded design occurs when multiple units of analysis are collected from each site in the study, but the analyses of one set of data is unaffected by another. The data collection in this study relied primarily on interviews and focus groups; however, because I also used secondary survey data, collected through a third party but provided by the district, this embedded case study called for a mixed-methods approach in order to explain phenomena within the district (Miles,
Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014; Yin, 2009).
Within the single site of the district, I applied embedded, instrumental case study approach by accessing multiple units of analysis to inform the research—in this case, leaders, teachers, and AP students in two of the four schools within the district. The unit of analysis is what is being studied (Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2009). In the context of this research, the “what” involved a series of systems, programs, and relationships within each embedded unit of analysis. Within each school, I examined school-based recruitment and support programming, school leadership and teachers, and current AP students to inform my understanding of the barriers and leadership practices. It is important to note, although both schools are operating with the same district-based initiative and within the same district, the practices for implementation within each unit of analysis were unique.
Given both the racialized nature of the research and the importance of accessing multiple units of analysis, applying only qualitative or quantitative methods proved insufficient.
Specifically, secondary survey data assessed attitudes of leaders and groups within the school, but the survey results did not tell the entire story. Hence, conducting interviews and focus groups provided more context and helped make more meaning out of the data (Creswell, 2009; Miles et
al., 2014). In the case of this research, for example, the secondary data sometimes combined the responses of all students; at other times, it isolated responses by student demographic group. Consequently, it was necessary to attempt to explain the information, quantified within the survey, within the context of Black and Latinx student perceptions.
Site Selection
Site selection was purposeful in nature, as according to Creswell (2009), purposeful site selection excludes random sampling and allows the research to better understand the problem at hand. In this case, potential sites were based on the criteria established by the College Board’s AP District Honor Roll (College Board, 2016a). The rationale for using this publicly available information as a starting point for site selection was because the College Board awards schools on the following criteria: the offering AP coursework to a wider body of students, and a district’s maintaining or improving the rate at which students are achieving a score of 3 or higher (College Board, 2011). Additionally, the list provided by the College Board identified districts that have enrollment of minimally 30% underrepresented student populations. In 2016, of the 433 school districts on the list, 61 meet the criteria of having at least 30% underrepresented student
populations (College Board, 2016a). Table 3 illustrates the total number of schools, by region, that are honored. Additionally, the table shows how many of the schools honored in each region of the United States have enrollments of 30% or more of underrepresented student populations. The Fairdale District leaders implemented their equity initiatives 2 years before the College Board began its “Honor Roll” recognition and has maintained the average of 3 or higher in all schools in the district.
Table 3
College Board Honor Roll By Region
Districts West Midwest South Northeast
Total districts honored 52 133 77 161
Districts with 30% enrollment Black or Latinx 20 7 24 10 My choice to contact the Fairdale District relied on several factors. First, I sought to identify schools or districts with schools that not only met the 30% underrepresented student criteria were diverse in overall demographics. This was because, if the intent of this research was to examine the under-enrollment of specific student populations within schools, schools that have a majority enrollment of Black and/or Latinx students within the general population were disqualified. In those cases, given large majority populations of any of those demographic populations, it would have been reasonable to assume that those numbers would be reflected in AP courses, as well. Finally, after potential sites were identified, I contacted district leaders, followed by school leaders to seek agreement to participate in the case study. In order to identify unique practices that either promote or prevent Black and Latinx students’ enrolling and
persisting in AP coursework, this study examined two schools within one diverse district, both with culturally diverse student populations, both with successful track records for student achievement on AP tests.
Because this study focused on attitudes and perceptions of leaders, students, and staff with regard to AP recruitment and support, aside from having proven success, I sought a district that had dedicated efforts in place for increasing AP enrollment. In this case study, the Fairdale District was working with a third party—Equal Opportunity Schools—to increase access and supports for Black and Latinx students in AP coursework.
Participant Selection
As with the site selection, the participant selection was purposeful in nature, as the purposeful selection allowed me to better understand the problem at hand (Creswell, 2009). Although some of the information involved descriptive statistics, student enrollments, and a compilation of school or district-based initiatives and programs that supported AP enrollment and success for underrepresented student populations, some information required collection of data from specific school leaders, AP teachers, and AP student populations, specifically Black and Latinx students.
The reasons for gathering qualitative information from these student populations are two- fold. First, given that I explored several factors that influence a students’ decision to enroll or not enroll in AP courses, it was important to glean information from student populations that
represented those on which I will focus in this case study. The emphasis on Black and Latinx students was important because students in these demographic groups have a history of
disproportionate exclusion from in Advanced Placement coursework. I was seeking information regarding student perceptions of obstacles and supports, deterrents and incentives related to their success in terms of access to content. Given the need for specificity in participant selections, Creswell (2009) noted a random sampling would not provide the most accurate results, as random sampling of AP student populations would possibly include students who do not meet the criteria for the focus of this study. In this case, I used a purposeful sampling approach for student and staff selection.
For staff selection, I interviewed school leaders and who played a role in decision-making efforts with regard to student recruitment, enrollment, and persistence in Advanced Placement
coursework. I also gave all AP teachers an opportunity to opt-in to individual interviews. A section later in the chapter will explain the details of who opted-in.
Student selection was coordinated through designated personnel at each school. At Highland High School, the contact was a teacher-leader. At Crescent Hill High School, the contacts were a counselor and a dean. It is important to note that because of substantial work responsibilities on the parts of the liaisons, coordination of the student focus group at CHS proved to be too great a challenge. AP Program coordination was a primary responsibility of the liaison at Highland, so communication was more consistent and allowed for the facilitation of the focus group. At Highland, all Black and Latinx students, currently enrolled in at least one AP course were invited to participate; however, we were constrained by staff availability and time. Still, 30 Black and Latinx students participated in one of two focus groups. Because student groups are vulnerable populations and most will likely be under the age of 18, all students were required to obtain consent from parents and sign individual letters of assent.
Data Collection
For this case study, data collection was gathered from a variety of sources. Individual interviews with school leaders, teaching staff, counselors, and school principals and
administrators involved with AP placement will focus on attitudes and perceptions of staff and school culture, intentions of interventions, areas of focus with regard to approaching race and racism within the context of AP enrollment and curriculum. Secondary survey data issued by a third party was made available from the district officials. The surveys focused on staff and students’ attitudes and perceptions with regard to the following in AP coursework: prior knowledge, enrollment, self-perception, available supports, rigor, and outcomes with regard to supports. The secondary data allowed me to identify differences in attitudes and perceptions
among various demographic groups. In addition to the survey data, I kept an observational field journal during the AP summer bridge programs and collected artifacts that served as
communication to parents and students about AP programs.
School personnel interviews. Given that a portion of this study examined course programming, it was important to interview the personnel within schools and districts who are responsible for creation and implementation of student selection and supports. The research for this case study has yet to begin, but it is important to note that I anticipated a relatively small number of programming architects, the school principals, likely administrators in curriculum and/or student services, teachers, and central office administration. In considering this case study, my goal was to yield a “smaller spectrum of data” (Saldaña, 2011, p. 34), so that I might explore the effects of a wider variety of services with greater depth. The opportunity to interview was offered to all AP teachers. In this case, the rationale was to saturate the data with a wide variety of teacher perceptions in order to ensure that there are enough perspectives in enough academic areas to appropriately inform the research (Creswell, 2009; Saldaña, 2011).
The interviews took place at a location of the interviewee’s choosing, all within the school building. Inviting the interviewees to choose the location served two purposes. First, in selecting a location that was familiar to the individual, there was a greater assurance of comfort, and therefore more authentic and candid responses to the questions. Additionally, conducting the interview in a setting familiar with the interviewee allowed me a greater context for school climate, neighborhood, and demographics (Creswell, 2009).
The semi-structured interviews lasted between 45 minutes and an hour and were conducted individually at each site. The purpose for this approach was to allow a basic framework for questioning and topics while opening an opportunities for deeper probing and
questioning (Weiss, 1995). Because there were multiple architects for accessing and supporting targeted student groups, each staff member, regardless of role, brought a unique perspective and skill set in designing a program that supports students. Individual interviews allowed me to access individual perspectives without concern for censorship or influence of other responses. Both Saldaña (2011) and Creswell (2009) noted that audio or video recording of interviews allows researchers to replay and perhaps gather information that may otherwise go unnoticed in manual transcription. Because of this assertion, I audio recorded and transcribed each interview.
Table 4 describes the total number of participants included in this study. The district leaders who were included were the district Superintendent and the Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, both of whom were primary drivers for selecting and beginning equity-based initiatives within all four schools within the district. In both Crescent Hill High School and Highland High School, all AP teachers were invited to take part in the case study. All teachers who responded to the invitation were interviewed. Because of the limited number of participants, unless referring to a specific subject area, no teachers were identified by his or her course. For the purpose of this case study, “School Leaders” included the following individuals: principals, assistant principals, deans, instructional coaches, and department directors. Because of the small number of school leaders, in order to maintain confidentiality of identity, quotes from school leaders will not include role unless the discussion is germane to a particular role. Table 4
Interview Participants for This Case Study
Location Total number of AP teachers at school Number of AP teachers interviewed Number of leaders interviewed
Crescent Hill High School 20 5 5
Highland High School 22 6 4
Secondary survey data. As part of the district-wide access and equity initiative, all schools within the district have agreed to work with an organization called Equal Opportunity Schools (EOS). Part of the foundational work for EOS involves assessing attitudes of staff and students in four areas: mindset, perceptions about AP, knowledge of resources, and needs. The results from the survey are valid in that each school leader is required to have responses from at least 90% of staff and students. Upon collection, the data was presented in quantifiable measures and did not offer further context with quantitative information. For those reasons, I used the data from this survey to inform the questions for interviews and student focus groups.
Descriptive statistics and school data. This data consisted of school AP course
enrollment numbers and demographics available from the state board website. In order to access data that articulates a complete picture of the student body, I needed both public records (e.g., state report cards) and records kept by the school.
Student focus groups. As noted earlier, I worked with liaisons at each school to invite all Black and Latinx students who were currently enrolled in Advanced Placement classes. Before discussing the nature of the focus groups, it is important to discuss a limitation in this portion of the data collection and shed light on a concern at Crescent Hill. Through no fault of the school leaders at Crescent Hill, coordination of focus groups was not possible. Both liaisons at Crescent Hill—a Black male dean and a Latina counselor—noted organizing focus groups would prove too difficult for them because, in addition to their leadership responsibilities, both were tasked with responsibilities involving outreach, monitoring, and support for Black and Latinx students both within the school and throughout the district. Both individuals noted the additional work was worthwhile and necessary. The counselor explained that as the only Latinx member of the leadership team, she was charged with—and felt a responsibility to—provide the
additional support. Though not a focus of this research, it is worth noting that the additional responsibilities placed upon staff members because of their racial-cultural-ethnic identities calls attention to researchers who cited cultural and racial taxation as historically problematic for minoritized academics within the world of colleges and universities (Chang, Walton, Martinez, & Cortez, 2013; Joseph & Hirshfield, 2010; Padilla, 1994). The experiences of the dean and counselor suggest the burden of taxation is not limited to the postsecondary academic setting.
The focus groups were semi-structured and occurred twice throughout a single school day in order to allow flexibility for the students’ schedules and to accommodate the as many students