OTROS ALELOS DE RIESGO EN LA REGIóN HLA

It was expected that the villages surveyed would not be homogeneous. Because of the role of religious leaders in sasi, we wanted to test whether differences might be evident between predominantly Christian and Muslim villages. Also, it was hypothesized that as villages grew past a certain size, local management institutions might break down (Berkes and Folke 1998). Finally, contextual variables could vary from island to island and this might have an impact on the structure and functioning of the sasi institution. Therefore, to display the information, the villages have been grouped by three different features: dominant religion, population size and island. The limits of four population size classes were chosen in such a way that each of the four groups would contain about a quarter of the villages sampled (Table 2.2).

A breakdown of the 63 villages included in the study by island, religion and population (Table 2.2) shows that two-thirds were predominantly Christian. Muslim villages tended to be larger and half of these were located on Ambon Island. Roughly a quarter of the villages fell into each of four size classes.

Table 2.2. Villages included in the study broken down by island, religion and size of population.

Island No. Religion Population Size Class Avg. no.

of (M=Muslim 1=<1,000;2=1,001-2,000; people/

sites C=Christian) 3=2,001-3,000; 4=>3,000 village

M C 1 2 3 4 Ambon 22 12 10 4 2 4 12 3,451 Haruku 11 4 7 1 4 5 1 2,252 Saparua 16 3 13 2 7 4 3 2,116 Seram 8 1 6 0 2 4 1 2,231 Nusa Laut 7 0 7 5 2 0 0 864 Total 63 20 43 12 17 18 17 (2 M (2 M (9 M (7 M 10 C) 15 C) 8 C) 10 C)

The activity of the sasi institution (as applied to both land and marine resources) was quantified by adding the number of positive indicators for presence, closed seasons, consistency of application and local effort (Table 2.3). Initially, a score was also given if sanctions were imposed on offenders. However, it became clear that whereas physical sanctions were always imposed in Muslim villages, Christian villages with strong and active church sasi often used not fines but the threat of punishment by God as a deterrent. As it could not be quantified for all villages, the presence or absence of sanctions was dropped as an indicator.

The activity of marine sasi was quantified by combining indicators for the presence of sasi fisheries rules, periodic closure of a marine sasi area to local harvesters that affected one or more species, and the existence of written rules and active enforcement of access restrictions (Table 2.4).

In both sasi and non-sasi villages, rules that seek to restrict or control fisheries access and withdrawal can be found outside the institution of sasi. The strength of marine management in both sasi and non-sasi villages was quantified by combining indicators for gear restrictions, local fisheries rules other than the national restriction on blast fishing and the use of poisons, area closures, the number of species affected by management rules, and active enforcement (Table 2.5). Table 2.3. Attributes considered in assigning a score for presence and activity of sasi in a village. Attributes are weighted so as to be equal in value.

Attribute Indicator Response Score

Presence Is there sasi in the village? no 0

Score 0-3 village sasi only 1

two or more types 3

Closure Does sasi involve the opening and closing no 0

Score 0-3 of harvest seasons? yes 3

Consistency Was there a ceremony to open/close sasi no 0

Score 0-3 this year? yes 1

Did sasi open/close last year? no 0

yes 1

Did sasi open/close in years before that? no 0

yes 1

Local effort When sasi is closed, are special signs no 0

Score 0-3 hand-made and installed? yes 3

Maximum possible score 12

Table 2.4. Attributes used in assigning a score for activity of marine sasi in each village. Attributes are weighted so as to be equal in value.

Attribute Indicator Response Score

Presence Is there marine sasi ? no 0

Score 0-3 yes 3

Closure Is the sasi area ever closed to village no 0

Score 0-3 residents ? yes 3

Written rules Are there written sasi rules that apply to no 0

Score 0-3 the fishery ? yes 3

Enforcement Does a kewang or other group of villagers no 0

Score 0-3 guard the sasi area and/or village territory ? yes 3

Methods 17

The differences in average marine management score for villages, grouped by presence or absence of sasi, geographical location, population size and religion were determined statistically using analysis of variance (SPSS 1997).

2.3

Performance Analysis of Sasi

2.3.1 Objectives

The purpose of this survey was to evaluate performance of the sasi institution over the entire research area in terms of four standard criteria: equity, efficiency, social sustainability and biological sustainability. Some socio-economic data were recorded to assess the average economic status of each fishing community.

Part of the survey questionnaire dealt with the ethnic background of respondents. Cultural homogeneity may be important to the success of traditional management systems. Therefore the material was useful to test the hypothesis that sasi would be more effective in relatively homogeneous villages.

The objective of direct biological surveys was to determine whether there were quantifiable differences in the coral reef cover and the incidence of selected species between areas managed sasi and areas with no access restriction. Biological surveys were carried out in and beside the marine territories of four of the case study villages.

Table 2.5. Attributes used to quantify the level of marine resource management rules existing (but not necessarily effectively enforced) in both sasi and non-sasi villages.

Attribute Indicator Reply Score Notes

Gear Is there any type of No 0 Usually a local rule

restriction fishing gear that is (written or unwritten)

forbidden in the Yes 1 supporting the national

village territory? ban on blast fishing and the

use of poisons existed.

Other Is there any other No 0

fisheries rule restriction on where,

when and how people Yes 1

can fish?

Access Is there an area where No 0

restrictions access is formally

restricted for local Yes 1

residents?

Species How many types of None 0 corals=1

affected resources are holothurians=1

managed or conserved Yes 1-7 mangroves=1

by sasi and non-sasi pelagic fish=1

fisheries rules? shellfish=1

reef (food) fish=1 ornamental fish=1

Enforcement Is restricted access No 0

area guarded by a

kewang or group? Yes 1

2.3.2 Methods

a) Performance analysis survey at the district level

The villages studied were on the islands of Seram, Ambon, Haruku and Saparua. Interviews took place in the period of July-September 1997. In each of the 22 villages in the performance study, 15 heads of fishing households were interviewed. The data collected from 30 heads of fishing households in each of the six case study villages were also included. Questions in the performance study were designed to elicit numerical values for indicators of efficiency, equity and sustainability (Table 2.6).

The values for each indicator are based on the perceptions of fishers using a self-anchored ladder scale (Pomeroy et al. 1996). This standard tool provides ordinal data, which allows statistical analysis. Fishers were asked to answer questions using a picture of a ladder with ten rungs as a visual aid. The lowest rung represented the worst possible condition; the tenth rung represented the best. Fishers pointed to the rung that in their opinion represented past (15 years ago), present and future (15 years ahead) conditions. The aim was to record fishers’ perceptions of current conditions, change through time and the degree of optimism for the future. There were 15 questions in all. In addition, base-line data were gathered from each respondent, i.e., name, age, religion, etc. Also, the people’s economic status was recorded by noting what type of boat, fishing gear and house he or she owned.

Assessment of equity and efficiency of marine resource management

In terms of fisheries management, equity may be equated with the democratic process, i.e., the level of involvement of fishers in decision-making. Equity is also a matter of fair access to marine resources and the means of production (capital, fishing gear, etc.). We therefore measured the perceptions of fishers towards their role in decision-making, their access to fisheries resources, distribution of the means of production as well as economic equality in their village.

Partnership in designing fisheries rules, i.e., the degree to which people are able to make a decision together, is one indicator for an efficient fisheries management system. The degree of control over the fishery, either directly, or indirectly through the village government, is another. It is difficult to discuss equity in management without also dealing with efficiency. This is because efficiency is in some ways the opposite of equity. Highly inclusive, democratic processes can be very inefficient in terms of time and money.

The ease of access to resources in terms of costs and compliance to fisheries rules are indicators that define efficiency from the resource user’s point of view. In an efficient management system, there is a high level of compliance without exorbitant costs either to fishers or managers. Compliance may result from active participation in management or may be related to the legitimacy or actual power of authority figures.

Access control and an effort to share resource benefits can support production systems that are less efficient in terms of profitability (although arguably more sustainable) than centralized, large-scale systems. In modern management circles, the balance between maximizing short- term profits and maximizing employment (fair access) in a fishery is a classic example of the tension between efficiency and equity. In seeking a balance, the legitimacy of decision-makers in the eyes of the stakeholders is a key factor.

Methods 19

Assessment of social sustainability

Social sustainability refers to the level of stability and cohesion in the village in political, social, and economic terms. When the village economy or political structure is under stress, it may affect local management institutions. On the other hand, the existence of a healthy and legitimate local institution may minimize negative social impacts of economic and political stress. Indicators of social cohesion e.g., community harmony and the level of collective action, were used as indicators for social sustainability. Family well-being and income of villagers were measured as indicators of economy-related well-being or stress. The level of public Table 2.6. Performance indicators.

Equity 1. Role of fishers in management ➾ The degree of influence that fishers