Algoritmo paralelo para MDE de tamaño grande

According to social exchange theory, employees match their attitudes and behaviour to their managers based on quid pro quo as a condition for developing social relationships

(Olowookere, 2014; Organ et al., 2006). Brown and Treviño (2006) suggested that SET theoretically explains the ethical behaviour of leaders and employees. As discussed in chapter two, justice is one of the most important principles of IWE that covers all aspects of a Muslim’s life. From an Islamic point of view, another meaning of justice is putting everything into its right place. In an Islamic context there are three important facets of jusitce. First, putting the right one to the right place, second, taking the right decision and granting wealth to whoever actually deserves it (Beekun & Badawi, 1999).

Alongside SET, organisational justice theory can provide a useful framework to understand the links between employee attitudes and behaviour and their preceptions of fairness in the workplace (Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter & Ng, 2001; Cropanzano, Bowen & Gilliland, 2007). Moorman (1991) pointed out that procedural justice contains the fairness of procedures that determines the ways that organisational resources are distributed and employee interactions, engagement and participation in decision making (PDM). Distributive justice may influence OCB as it is derived from equity theory (Adams, 1965; Organ, 1990). Moorman, Niehoff and Organ (1993) and Moorman (1991) found that procedural justice was related to OCB. Participation in decision making is highly correlated with both OCBI and OCBO (Bogler & Somech, 2005). In their meta-analysis, Organ and Ryan (1995) found a positive relationship between fairness (distributive, procedural, and interactional) and citizenship behaviour. Crawshaw, Cropanzano, Bell and Nadisic (2013) and Treviño and Weaver (2001) found that both procedural and distributive justice have a positive impact on ethical behaviour.

Similar to SET, Islamic work ethic emphasises the development of personal relationships between people (Shore et al., 2009). This is accordance with Sengupta (2010) and Yaghi (2008) who claim that religious beliefs and spirituality seem to affect leadership styles as they frame and filter information used to make decisions. Goo et al. (2009) found that social exchanges in the workplace are a motivator for enhancing OCB. Lee et al. (2013) reported that SET (Blau, 1964) is the theoretical basis or lens of OCB. An IWE perspective is a way of fostering social interactions (interactional justice) among people where discriminating against others based on their different religious, economic class, colour and ethnic backgrounds is prohibited (Ahmad & Owoyemi, 2012). Consistent with this, Colquitt et al. (2001) conducted a meta- analysis of 183 justice studies and found a positive association between interpersonal justice (the daily treatment of managers of their employees) and assessment of their supervisor style with three dimensions of organisational justice (procedural, distribution and informational) and all were positively related to trust.

Ethical behaviour contains key principles such as concern for others, integrity, fairness and honesty and benefits others and refrain from harm (Toor & Ofori, 2009). From an Islamic perspective, managers should not treat their subordinates fairly and satisfy them merely because it is their duty to do but also because it is a religious duty and they are accountable to Allah in the Judgement Day (Ali, 1987; Abbasi et al., 2010; Ebrahim, 2005; Possumah, Ismail & Shahimi, 2013). When individuals feel that they have no accountability to others they will be more motivated to take self-interested decisions while when they feel accountability they are more likely to feel more responsible and contribute to decisions that benefit others (Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 1982; Reis & Gruzen, 1976). In addition, Islam urges people to cooperate, engage and contribute in teamwork for acting in a good and righteousness way and rewards them, whereas, it prohibits badness and punishes it (Ali, 2005; Shihab, 2011). Earlier studies have illustrated that religiosity and helping others are related (Musick & Wilson 2008; Wuthnow, 2004; Wilson, 2000). In the same line, Islam encourages Muslims to engage in voluntary activities (Pomeranz, 2004). Volunteer work that has no reward or return is described in Islam as Khayr, Ihsan (virtue, doing favour for someone) which is done for the sake of pleasing Allah and hope of the reward in the judgement day. This is a main motive for Muslims to get involved in voluntary activities. It also encourages them to courteously cooperate and consult with each other especially in the workplace (see, Ali, 2005; Al-bashi & Ghazali, 1994). Perceptions of fairness in particular the perceptions of procedural justice are an important motivational basis for OCB (e.g., Deluga, 1994; Konovsky & Organ, 1996; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994).

If employees perceive that support from their organisation is violated their level of OCB will decrease (Moorman et al., 1998; Mowday, 1991; Organ, 1990; Wayne et al., 2002). Perceptions of organisational fairness increase an employee’s OCB especially their perceptions of procedural justice which come mainly from participation in decision making or principle of consultation (Shura) in IWE (Organ, 1988). Participation in decision making signals to employees that they are valuable to their organisation (Irving & Taggar, 2004). This is consistent with SET and the norm of reciporocity in which when employees perceive that an organisation values them this will enhace the establishment of trust between the two partners. Participation in decision making is known to be part of the scheme of employee engagement which enhances satisfaction and commitment (Latham et al., 2004) and enhances personal values in the organisation (Probst, 2005). Indeed, participation in decision making causes engagement in OCB like helping new members of staff (for a review; see Porter, Lawler &

Hackman, 1996). Organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly predicted by intrinsic religiosity, while OCBI is significantly predicted by extrinsic religiosity (Khalid et al., 2012). Bogler and Somech (2005) found that teachers’ perceptions of empowerment mediated the association between participation in decision making and OCB.

Smith et al. (1983) argued that the adjective “good” in “good soldier” is attributed to values and ethics. The OCB instrument of Smith et al. (1983) indirectly emphasises and includes forms of ethics like; suggesting innovative ideas, helping others, avoiding wasting time and optionally doing tasks. Moreover, Van Dyne et al. (1994) developed a measure for OCB which includes ethical behaviours. The evaluation of ethics should be according to personal values that underlie the individual attitudes and beliefs which influence behaviour. These behaviours are identified as right or wrong based on personal values which are the basis of a ‘‘specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state . . .’’ (Rokeach, 1973, p. 5).

The significance of work ethics is attributed to planting them in employee behaviour and attitudes because the absence of those ethics will cause disorders in the administrative system and consequently the needs of people will not be properly satisfied (Yousef, 2001). Islam as a complete way of life and inclusive religion is keen to raise its followers to apply these principles in all aspects of their life (Al-Sabbagh, 1985). Recently, a link was found between OCB and ethical behaviour (Turnipseed, 2002). The relationship between IWE and job satisfaction, commitment, turnover intention and more specifically OCB has not received adequate attention (Haroon, Fakhar & Rehman, 2012; Oliver, 1990; Zaman et al., 2012) although positive correlations between IWE and OCB have been found (Alhyasat, 2012; Abbasi & Rana, 2012; Kumar & Rose, 2012; Murtaza et al., 2016). Hawas (2003) reported that organisational fairness and OCB were related in a commercial bank in Cairo. Prophet Mohamed (PBUH) has stated that “Al-Din Al-Maamala” which means that religion is a good conduct and manner with others. Islamic teachings and principles shape the cultural beliefs and values of Muslims all over the world. From early stages of childhood, people are familiarised and their awareness is increased about the things that are religiously allowed and prohibited. Three important qualities of Ihsan whether taken collectively or individually apart from the Judaic and Christian point of view are; interaction and relationships are mainly personal, inclusive, race considerations and span class, which are expected to have flexibility in their application. In terms of the first, Quran (49:13) states: The noblest of you in the sight of God is the best of you in conduct and

people of best conduct are the closest to Allah in the judgement day (Abuznaid, 2009; Possumah, Ismail & Shahimi, 2013). In light of this it is assumed that:

Hypothesis1: Islamic Work Ethic is a stronger predictor of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour than job satisfaction, affective commitment, normative commitment and continuance commitment.