CONTENIDOS

Three theories are presented here and compared to select the most applicable theory for the research. Experiential learning theory, theory of planned behaviour and Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological model are outlined in the following sections.

2.5.1 Experiential learning theory

Experiential learning theory is defined as an integrative perspective on learning that occurs through the combination of experience, cognition and behaviour and that learning is a continuous process based on experience (Kolb, 1984). The theory posits that there are four stages of learning: concrete experience (feeling), reflective observation (watching), abstract conceptualisation (thinking) and active experimentation (doing). The learning cycle can begin at any stage; however, it has

to be in this particular sequential order. People progress through the cycle a various number of times during their individual learning cycle (Akella, 2010). Nevertheless, to be most effective, the Learner partakes in new experiences then reflects on the experiences in order to develop informal theories. As a result, the Learner uses these theories to make their own decisions or solve problems (Henson & Hwang, 2002).

The experiential learning theory can be applied to the GDL system as the rationale of the GDL system is to transform novice drivers through gradual experience. As drivers progress through the graduated licensing system, they experience driving under supervision and watching other drivers. Instructors teach them and guide their reflection from their feelings and observations. From their thoughts, with the adequate amount of experience, the drivers can apply their judgment to safe driving. However, while this theory may be well suited to

characterising the drivers‟ learning experience as they progress through the GDL, it does not explicitly incorporate other factors relevant to the current research such as family and cultural background aspects. Hence it was not considered to provide an adequate conceptual framework for the research.

2.5.2 Theory of planned behaviour

Another theory that was explored as a framework for the research is the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) which, in turn, is an adaptation of Dulany‟s (1961) theory of propositional control. According to the theory, people‟s attitude towards a certain behaviour, their subjective norm and their perceived

behavioural control affect their behaviour indirectly through their intentions. Attitude refers to one‟s evaluation of a behaviour which can be favourable or not and the subjective norm expresses the pressure from others to commit the behaviour.

Furthermore, perceived behaviour control is the level of difficulty there would be to carry out the act (Forward, 2009). Finally, the intention is defined as the willingness to perform the behaviour (Warner & Aberg, 2006).

The theory of planned behaviour has been frequently used in traffic safety research to predict drivers‟ behaviours such as drink driving (Parker et al., 1992), dangerous overtaking (Forward, 1997), close following (Parker et al., 1992) and lane discipline (Parker, Manstead, & Stradling, 1995). Furthermore, the theory of planned behaviour has been used to predict speeding behaviour (Stradling & Parker, 1997). Although this theory has been commonly used to explain drivers‟ behaviour, the current research will focus on how driving behaviours and attitudes relate to cultural and family backgrounds. While the theory of planned behaviour may be useful for studying driver attitudes, the focus of the planned research on behaviours, rather than intentions, suggests that another theory may provide a better fit to the research aims. 2.5.3 Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological model

Bronfenbrenner (1977, 1979) proposed an ecological systems theory that has been widely used by developmental psychologists to comprehend individuals in context. In conception, the model has been used to explain setting-level influences and provides a guiding developmental model to explain a range of experiences including adolescent psychological and academic outcomes (Seidman, 1991), developmental risk and protective factors of substance usage (Szapocznik & Coatsworth, 1999), youth activity engagement and family influences on gender development (McHale, Crouter, & Whiteman, 2003; Rose-Krasnor, 2009). Based on Lewin‟s theory of psychological fields, the ecological environment is visualised as a

set of nested structures each inside the other (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

development. The lowest level of the structure is the microsystem, followed by the mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and finally the chronosystem (see Figure 2.1).

The microsystem is the setting in which the focal individual plays a direct role, experiences and has direct social interactions with others. It comprises a pattern of activities where these relationships, roles and activities are experienced in a face- to-face setting with particular physical, social and symbolic features that allow or inhibit this engagement in an immediate environment. Peer groups, families, schools and workplace make up parts of the microsystem.

Figure 2.1 Diagram of the Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (Impact of special needs, n.d.)

The mesosystem is the level in which multiple microsystems are nested including social interactions within the individual‟s environments. The mesosystem is the linkage and processes that occur between two or more settings with the developing individual. An example might be the relations between the parent of the developing individual and the teacher in regards to the individual‟s behaviour. Thus

it represents social interactions of the microsystems of the family and the microsystems of the school.

Exosystems are the nested mesosystems which comprise the linkages and processes that are taking place between two or more settings. The developing individuals are influenced by the settings but do not have direct participation. As an example, exosystems that are likely to affect a developing child may be through community decisions to change the school environment which would have an effect on the microsystems in which children interact.

The macrosystems consist of an overarching pattern of micro-, meso- and exosystems that include the extensive cultural influences or ideologies that result in long-ranging consequences for the developing individual. Macrosystems can also be described as a societal blue-print for a specific culture or subculture. Finally, the system extends its parameter to the third dimension introducing the chronosystem. This system includes the change or consistency over a period of time not only in the characteristics of the person but also through the environment in which that

individual lives. Examples can be changes over life in their family structure,

socioeconomic status employment, place of residence and their ability in daily life.

Thus this model utilises the five socially organised subsystems to support and explain human development. Therefore to explain the experiences of Korean

Australians as they progress through the Australian focused GDL system,

Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological models were considered to be a useful framework as they help explain the reasons for differences in the perception of the GDL system and also their experiences as they advance through the licensing procedure.