An investigation into the universal
structure of values
Introduction
The theory developed by Rokeach (1973) established the concept o f values as a distinct social psychological phenomenon, and introduced self-report questionnaire methodology as the main mode of investigation. Despite the widespread success o f the theory and the associated values instrument, however, both have also been subject to on-going critique (see pp 32-38). The refinement and elaboration of Rokeach’s basic theory of values by Schwartz (1992) offers the most coherent response to the major criticisms and further advances the general theoretical perspective. Hence his extension of Rokeach’s theory currently represents the most advanced theory o f values in this tradition, and is therefore the focus for the present chapter.
Schwartz changed the emphasis of values research from the measurement o f the priorities accorded individual values, to the analysis of the relationships between values revealed by ratings of values. Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) followed Rokeach in suggesting values were cognitive representations of a special kind. They then focused, however, on three universal requirements of human existence that they argued values represent. These concern the needs of individuals as biological organisms, the requisites of coordinated social interaction, and the survival and welfare needs o f groups. On the basis o f these requirements, Schwartz (1992) proposed 10 distinct motivational types of values.
Schwartz has made extensive use of the statistical technique o f smallest space analysis (Guttman, 1968) to explore and demonstrate these relationships. This form of analysis allows the similarities and differences between values, expressed in participants’ ratings of their importance, to be represented as distances in space. The result is a multi-dimensional scaling space, in which those values rated similarly are placed close together, and those for which there is a negative correlation are represented
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in distant parts of the space. The semantic space can then be differentiated into regions identifying groups of similar values, as well as demonstrating the more abstract relationships between these groups. In comparisons with over 88 samples from 40 countries (Schwartz, 1994), Schwartz found that the same regions almost invariably appear in the semantic spaces. These findings therefore lend considerable support to Schwartz’s claim to have found the underlying universal content and structure o f values.
Schwartz’s extension of Rokeach’s theory raises a different set of issues in the context of the notion of postmodemity and changing values. Rokeach offered a method for the analysis of value change, and in his own work reported findings that have been shown here to be consistent with central themes of postmodemity. As discussed in the Chapter 5, it is only in the more subtle implicit limits to the potential for change imposed by Rokeach’s theoretical framework that issues arise. In contrast, Schwartz’s addition to the theory seems entirely contrary to the claims of the postmodem literature. In contrast to the idea that we live in an age of fragmentation and plurality, in which ‘grand narratives’ have been replaced by ‘petit recues’ (Lyotard, 1979), Schwartz’s theory defends the notion of universality. Moreover, the universality is grounded, it is claimed, in human nature, the result of universal requirements of human existence, again contrasting with postmodem claims about non-essential selves (e.g. Hepbum, 1998). Furthermore, Schwartz has not simply suggested a universal foundation but in extensive empirical work, has consistently found the near universal stmcture o f values hypothesised by the model. Hence in the context of the discussion about social change and the postmodemity debate of concem in the present thesis, Schwartz’s theory presents something of a paradox. How can values be both plural and fragmented as postmodemity suggests, whilst possessing universal characteristics grounded in essential features of human nature and social and group interaction?
The present study continues the investigation into the idea o f changing values in contemporary society by focusing on the theory of Schwartz and addressing this apparent paradox. It follows in the spirit of the previous study, consistent with the earlier reading o f Foucault’s archaeology, first replicating Schwartz’s approach and analysing its results and implications before considering any altematives. In response to postmodem claims about fragmentation and changing values, therefore, the study attempts to first replicate the universal model of values proposed by Schwartz (1992). It
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will use the Schwartz Value Survey (SYS; Schwartz, 1992) and analyse the data using multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) closely following the procedures set out by Schwartz.
The first aim of the study is to investigate the claim that there is a universal structure underlying values. The study will provide a further test of the replicability and robustness of Schwartz’s model. So far, amongst the many replications, there has only been one reported using a British sample (Schwartz, 1994). The present study will therefore provide a second data set collected in Britain. The second aim is to then offer an analysis of this data in the context of the specific concerns o f the thesis about change raised by postmodemity. It will consider the extent to which this major psychological theory supports a universal conception of values in contrast to claims about plurality and fragmentation. A third aim is for the data from the present investigation to serve as a preliminary stage to a subsequent study presented in Chapter 7. This next study will go on to explore other aspects of values and value change. It will consider, moreover, whether these dimensions are independent of those aspects o f values contributing to Schwartz’s model. Hence, some of the participants used will be a sub-sample o f those taking part in the present study. It will thus already have been demonstrated whether their value priorities are structured according to the model outlined in Schwartz’s theory.
The principal research question for the, present , study is therefore straightforward. It is to test whether the scaling solution found previously by Schwartz can be replicated with a contemporary British sample. Consistent with previous findings, it would be expected to find 10 motivational types of value revealed in the semantic space, arranged according to the stmcture reported by Schwartz (1992).
Method:
Participants:One hundred and five participants took part in the study. Thirty-seven were male (35%) and 67 female (64%). One participant did not report their gender. They ranged in age from 18 to 63 years (mean age 29.61 years, SD = 11.88). Three respondents withheld their age. Approximately half the participants in the study were students in the Psychology department at University College London. The remainder were employed in
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a wide range of occupations. Volunteers for the study were recruited via advertisements posted around the college and were paid a nominal sum for their participation.
Measures:
Schwartz Value Survey (SVS). A version of the SYS was produced using the set of values, response scale, and instructions specified by Schwartz (1992). It consists o f a list of 56 values, each combined with a short defining phrase. Participants are required to rate each of the values on a scale from -1 to 7. Scores on this scale are defined as: -1, ‘against my values’; 3 ‘important’; and 7 ‘of supreme importance’. The version of the SVS used in the study is included in Appendix B.
Demographics Questionnaire. A short demographics questionnaire recording gender, age, and occupation was also administered.
Procedure:
Volunteers for the study were given a copy of the SVS and the demographic questionnaire. They were then asked to read and confirm that they understood the following instructions printed at the top of the SVS:
‘This questionnaire is a list of values. Please rate each of them according to how important they are to YOU, as a guiding principle in your life.
Use the scale at the top of the page, from -1 ‘Opposed to my values’ to 7 ‘O f Supreme Importance’.
As this is a questionnaire about values, you may find that many of the items seem important. Please be careful to think about each one, and rate highly only those values that are especially important to you. It may help to quickly read through the complete list first and pick out the few that are most important, before you begin rating the others.’
The survey took 10 to 20 minutes for most respondents to complete. Participants were then debriefed as to the aims of the study. A sample o f those taking part was then also asked if they would participate in a follow-up investigation involving a short interview. This study is reported in the next chapter of the thesis.
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Statistics:
The data were subjected to multi-dimensional scaling analysis using the ALSCAL programme in SPSS for windows version 7.5.
Results:
The screening procedure suggested by Schwartz (1992) was first used on the data. Participants were excluded who use the ‘7’ response option, ‘of supreme importance’, for more than 22 of the 56 values. They were considered to have not sufficiently differentiated the values. Also excluded were those who responded 35 times or more using any one option on the response scale, indicating an acquiescent response bias. Of the 105 participants in the study, eight (7.6%) were excluded on these criteria.
The remaining data were then analysed using MDS. It involved the computation of Pearson product moment correlations for the 56 values. The correlations were then transformed into Euclidean distances between values, which were mapped using the ALSCAL programme to represent them as points in semantic space. This space may employ anything from 1 to 56 dimensions, with anything less than the latter likely to subject the data to imperfect representation or ‘stress’ (Kruskal & Wish, 1978). Typically in multi-dimensional scaling the stress of different solutions is plotted in order to find the point at which there is an ‘elbow’, indicating a marked reduction in the stress of the plot, and hence the most appropriate number of dimensions required by the data. However, in Schwartz’s recent work, 2-dimensional solutions have been employed regardless o f stress. Hence a 2-dimensional solution was used here. The resulting scaling solution is reproduced in Figure 6.1.
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F ig u re 6.1: Tw o-dim ensional scaling space partitioned according to Schw artz’s theory (1992).
□ d a rin g STIMULATION HEDONISM p le a s u r e ACHIEVEMENT ex c itin g life SELF-DIRECTION c reativ ity □ 4/orid of b è s u ty t f forgiving influential re c ip ro c a tio n g u n ity witfi n a t u R v a n e d life POWER njoying life in d e p e n R z u rio u s tru e frie n d s h ip ■ □ s u c c e s s fu l □ w e a lth s o c ia l p o w e r a u th w ity fr e e d o m am b itio u s b ro a d rro n d e d d e t a c h m e n c h o o s in g ow n g o a ls l o y a f \ w isS o m c a p a b l e s o c ia l re c o g n itio n □ h u m b le □ e q u a lity □ in n e r h a r m o n y ^ p ro te c tin g th e e n v iro n m e n t UNIVERSALISM s o c ia l j u s tic e m a t u r e l o w h j w orld a t p e a c e p r e s e rv in g p u b lic im a g e h o n o rin g of p a r e n ts □ m e a li n g in life h o nQ 5 ^ iR lpful fam ily s e c u n h e a lth y □ c le a n o b e d ie n t CONFORMITY o M r a te TRADITION r e s p o n s ib le p o lite n e s s s e lf- d is d p lin e
a c c e p tin g p o rtio n in life S o c i a l o rd e r f la tio n a l sec u rity
s e n s e of b e lo n g in g d e v o u t
BENEVOLENCE
r e s p e c t for trad itio n □
s e lf - r e s p e c t sp in tu a l life
SECURITY
Schwartz (1992) provides detailed criteria for deciding w hether sets o f values form bounded regions confirming the presence o f the a priori motivational types. The region must include at least 60% o f the postulated values; no more than 33% o f the values o f any other single type; and at least 70% o f all the values in the region have to have been judged a priori as potentially reflecting one o f the meanings o f the goals o f the motivational type. According to these criteria, nine o f the 10 value types could be confirmed on the basis o f the results o f the present study. The missing type was ‘Benevolence’, for which only five o f the nine values postulated as belonging to this motivational type appeared in the same region in the space. Overall, 45 o f the 56 values (80.4%) appeared in the hypothesised regions.
Regarding the overall structure between motivational types, two o f the 10 types needed to be moved to conform to the model postulated by Schwartz. Hedonism appeared in the partitioned space between Stimulation and Self-direction rather than
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between Stimulation and Achievement. Security appeared between Tradition and the cluster of values usually associated with Benevolence, rather than between the Tradition and Power. Thus, both motivational types needed to be moved only one place in the structure to fit the hypothesised model exactly.
Discussion:
The immediate aims of the study were to further test the replicability of Schwartz’s model of the universal content and structure of values, and to place the findings in the context of the idea of a radical change of values in contemporary society. The predictions o f the theory were largely found in the present data. The existence of nine o f the 10 postulated motivational types was indicated by the presence of distinct regions in the scaling space. Moreover the motivational types were arranged as theorised, with only minor modifications needed to fit the model precisely. The findings are therefore consistent with the initial hypotheses made on the basis of Schwartz’s (1992) theory. They seem to suggest, in addition, that the claims of the theory may be held with even further confidence, since the study used data from a culture under represented in previous cross-cultural analyses.
The findings therefore reproduce the paradox discussed in the introduction. Contrary to postmodern notions of fragmentation and plurality in contemporary society, they show further evidence for a universal underlying structure of values, theorised by Schwartz as a product of universal human requirements. There are three main responses: either the claims made for postmodemity are exaggerated or not applicable to values, and so there is no sense in which there is a postmodern plurality of values; or there is an underlying problem that has not been discussed with Schwartz’s universal theory; or the universality posited by Schwartz and the fragmentation suggested by postmodemity are somehow unconnected. Each of these three possibilities will be discussed.
First, then, it may be that the postmodem tum has been overstated and there has not been a fundamental shift in values. It would be simplest to accept the findings of the study as a refutation of the overly bold claims made under the mbric of this very loosely grounded idea. For the time being, however, with no additional empirical
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evidence to support or refute the idea of a postmodern transformation in values, this option does not go any further toward addressing the concerns of the thesis.
The second possibility is a critique of Schwartz’s theory. There are indeed a number of ways in which the theory might be criticised. Although the present study has provided an additional corroboration of the theoretical predictions, it could first be emphasised that many of the findings reported by Schwartz have diverged from the model. For example, in data sets from Zimbabwean and Slovakian teachers, and from Israelis living in a Kibbutz, only four of the 10 types appeared as distinct regions. Moreover, for 24 o f Schwartz’s 88 samples (27%), only six or less distinct types were found (Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995). However, as Schwartz and Sagiv (1995) recently defined motivational types, as ‘fuzzy sets arrayed on a motivational continuum’ (p. 98), it could be argued that considerable variability is to be expected in the placement of individual values and in the emergence of the distinct regions. Given this inherent variability in the phenomenon and the multiple replications of the theory, including that of the present study, it seems fruitless to argue that this basic structure does not generally exist in values data generated and analysed using the techniques developed by Schwartz.
A second, more productive line of critique might focus on the indeterminacy of the relationship between the data generated by these methods and the theory through