The following section will detail the quantitative component of the research. The quantitative phase entailed secondary analysis of data collected as part of the 2014 HBSC study carried out in England. The broader international HBSC study will initially be introduced before detailing the 2014 HBSC England data set which was utilised in this study. The section will conclude with a rationale for utilising the 2014 HBSC England as a source for secondary analysis.
3.4.1 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC)
The HBSC study was founded in 1982 by researchers from three countries - Finland, Norway and England. Shortly afterwards, HBSC became a World Health Organization (WHO) collaborative study and has now grown to include 48 countries across Europe and North America. Each country participating in the HBSC study has a national research team responsible for coordinating the study in their country. In order to allow for valid cross- national comparisons, national teams conduct the survey in accordance with an international protocol (Currie et al., 2014).
Every four years the HBSC study measures young people's health, wellbeing, health behaviours and the social context in which these occur. HBSC collects data from young people aged 11, 13 and 15 years via self-completed, school-based surveys. The surveys consist of core, optional and country-specific questions (Currie et al., 2014). Core questions constitute the majority of the survey and allow for cross-national comparisons which form the internationally reported HBSC data (Inchley et al., 2016). Groups of countries can also decide to collaborate using HBSC optional packages; topic specific packages of questions which offer the ability to develop a deeper understanding of a particular subject. Finally, national research teams will often add country-specific questions to the survey to reflect current priority areas (see Appendix A for an overview of the core, optional and country- specific questions used in the 2014 HBSC England survey).
England was one of the founding HBSC countries in 1982, however England withdrew from the study shortly afterwards and re-joined in 1997. The HBSC study for England is currently co-ordinated from CRIPACC, UH. England has taken part in the 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018 survey rounds. This study drew on data collected as part of the 2014 HBSC England study only; the 2014 HBSC England survey will be outlined in further detail in Section 3.4.2.
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Further information about the HBSC study internationally and nationally can be found at www.hbsc.org and www.hbscengland.org respectively.
3.4.2 2014 HBSC England study
This study utilised the 2014 HBSC England data set. Access to the data set was granted by Professor Fiona Brooks, Principal Investigator of the HBSC England study. The following section will outline the sampling method, sample characteristics, survey tool and data collection process of the 2014 HBSC England study.
Sample
The population for the 2014 HBSC England study was young people aged 11, 13 and 15 years who were attending school10 (state or independent), this corresponded to school years 7, 9 and 11 respectively. Cluster sampling was employed, which involved sampling groups of organisations before sampling within the organisation. This was an ideal method as it was “impractical to compile a list of the elements composing the population” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 155). A list of state and independent schools across all regions of England was used as a sampling frame. The sample consisted of 100 schools, stratified by region and school type. Sampling was done by replacement; if one school from the original sample declined to participate, a matched school was contacted.
A total of 5335 young people from 48 schools participated in the 2014 HBSC England study. The student response rate was 91.8%; with 2.9% absent from class due to sickness, 2.2% pupil or parent refusals, 2.6% absent for other reasons11 and 0.4% returned blank questionnaires.
Sample characteristics
The 2014 HBSC England data set offered a large representative sample of young people from across England. The sample was stratified by region to ensure geographical representation, with respondents from all except one region taking part in the study. The North East was not represented in the 2014 HBSC England sample due to sampling difficulties, however the breadth and magnitude of respondents across the remaining regions in England is likely to represent the country’s different economic and social conditions. The sample was further stratified by school type; ensuring representation from both maintained schools (including secondary, grammar, middle and high schools) and independent schools.
10 Special schools and home-schools were not included in the sample.
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The sample was representative of gender (51.9% boys; 48.1% girls), with a fair spread across each of the three age groups (39.8% 11 year olds; 30.0% 13 year olds; 30.2% 15 year olds). Free school meal (FSM) eligibility is indicative of lower household income. The 2014 HBSC England sample identified 12.8% of young people in state schools were receiving FSM; this was slightly lower than the 16.3% reported by the Department for Education (2013). All major ethnic groups were represented in the survey in approximately the proportions in which they exist in the population of interest; providing a fitting reflection of ethnic diversity in society as a whole. Overall, 70.6% of respondents identified as ‘White British’ and 90.2% said they had been born in Britain.
A detailed breakdown of the 2014 HBSC England sample characteristics can be found in Brooks et al. (2015).
Survey tool
The 2014 HBSC England survey was a comprehensive measure of young people's health and wellbeing in England. The questionnaire included several measures which captured the broad scope of young people's physical, emotional and social wellbeing. There were two versions of the questionnaire – one for 11 and 13 year old respondents, and one for 15 year old respondents. Respondents who were 15 years old were asked additional questions concerning sexual health, substance use, alcohol consumption and self-harm which were deemed inappropriate for the younger respondents; otherwise the questionnaires were identical. The majority of questions offered a choice of response options, such as a 5-point scale ranging from ‘strongly agree’ through to ‘strongly disagree’; open ended responses were used in a few instances, for example when a respondent recorded their height. See Appendix A for an overview of the questions which featured in the 2014 HBSC England survey – including details of which questions were asked of 15 year old respondents only, and the possible response options.
This study analysed a subset of measures in the 2014 HBSC England survey, including questions relating to demographics, bullying, health and wellbeing and the young person’s social environment. See Section 4.2.1 for a detailed description of the specific questions analysed in this study.
Data collection
Data was collected between September 2013 and March 2014. The surveys were administered in schools by members of the national research team or teaching staff,
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depending on the preference of the individual school. In instances where teachers administered the survey to their students they were provided with detailed instructions. Respondents completed the questionnaire during a school lesson and completion typically took no longer than 45 minutes. The questionnaires were answered in exam-like conditions (in silence and at individual desks) to ensure respondents would feel comfortable answering the questions in a reliable way. Respondents sealed their completed questionnaires in an envelope to keep their responses confidential. Completed questionnaires were collected by members of the national research team or teaching staff who administered the survey. For further information on the 2014 HBSC England study methodology see Brooks et al. (2015).
3.4.3 Professional association with the HBSC England study
Since 2012 I have held a research post in the Health, Young People and Family Lives Research Unit based in CRIPACC, UH. My primary role has been to assist with the delivery of the HBSC study in England, contributing to both the 2014 and 2018 HBSC England survey rounds. In relation to the 2014 HBSC England study specifically, I participated in all stages of the research project including the development of the survey tool, the seeking of ethical approval, the sampling and recruitment of schools, fieldwork, data entry and write-up of the results (i.e. Brooks et al., 2015).
My personal involvement with the HBSC study in England proved to be valuable in the context of my doctoral studies. Initially, engaging with the HBSC research study triggered my interest in young people’s bullying behaviours. Furthermore, on both a national and international level the HBSC study has supported young people’s involvement in research; this fostered an understanding and acknowledgement of the importance of capturing the voice of young people and informed the decision to position young people as central in this research. Being part of a research team facilitated my critical thinking and awareness of research, enabling me to identify relational bullying specifically as an important and under- researched topic within the UK. This led to the development of the research aim and objectives being explored in the present study.
Furthermore, being involved in the 2014 HBSC England study provided underpinning knowledge about the sample and data set. This knowledge and practical involvement with the 2014 HBSC England study proved to be particularly beneficial when undertaking statistical analyses. For example, the real-world experience of conducting fieldwork within classes within schools was a concrete example of the cluster sampling employed and illustrated how this technique may produce observations that are not independent of each
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other, which in turn facilitated my understanding and approach to data analysis through the employment of multilevel modelling.
3.4.4 Rationale for secondary analysis of the 2014 HBSC England data set
The 2014 HBSC England data set was an ideal source for secondary data analysis, offering a number of advantages. Firstly, the 2014 HBSC England survey contained measures which were pertinent to the research topic, thus facilitating the meeting of the research objectives (see Section 4.2.1). The survey contained questions on relational bullying which were employed and adapted in this research study. Furthermore, the survey included a number of measures assessing health and wellbeing; in line with the WHO (1986) definition of health, the measures extended beyond physical health complaints to incorporate the subjective and emotional wellbeing of an individual too. These measures were integral to examine the health and wellbeing associations of relational bullying. The 2014 HBSC England survey also explored the wider social context of young people including the family, school and neighbourhood, which aligned with the social-ecological framework that guided this research. The broad scope of the study was crucial for exploring factors which may help young people successfully navigate relational bullying.
Secondly, drawing on data collected as part of the HBSC study ensured validated measures were utilised. Members of the HBSC international network continually develop and validate research measures to promote robust findings (Currie et al., 2014). Validation work from the HBSC international network has been published in relation to a number of measures, including the Family Affluence Scale (Currie et al., 2008), KIDSCREEN-10 (Erhart et al., 2009; Ravens-Sieberer et al., 2010), school performance (Felder-Puig et al., 2012) and teacher support (Torsheim et al., 2012).
Additionally, all countries in the HBSC study strive for a large, nationally representative sample to increase the credibility and generalisability of the findings. The 2014 HBSC England sample achieved a final sample of 5335 respondents from 48 schools. The sample for England was stratified by region and school type to ensure geographic representation and a mix of state and privately funded schools. The 2014 HBSC England sample was representative of gender, age and ethnicity, providing a trustworthy source for secondary data analysis and the generation of new knowledge.
Finally, young people were involved throughout the HBSC research process ensuring that the HBSC study was informed by young people (Daniels et al., 2014; Inchley et al., 2016) - this
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resonated with the central focus on young people in the present research (see Figure 1.1). On a national level the HBSC England research team adopted a participatory approach, working collaboratively with young people on questionnaire development, ethical sensitivity and the interpretation of results (Brooks et al., 2015). Both the national (Brooks et al., 2015) and international (Inchley et al., 2016) reports from the 2014 study include commentary from young people on their interpretation and meaning of the data.
3.4.5 Summary of quantitative research phase
Relational bullying behaviours have received less research in a UK context, and as such the 2014 HBSC England data set offered a unique opportunity to examine relational bullying among a large representative sample of young people in England. The data allowed for the successful examination of prevalence, demographic factors and associations with health outcomes. Furthermore, the 2014 HBSC England survey included pivotal measures allowing the exploration of social context and relational bullying. However, the quantitative data alone was unable to provide a complete picture of this complex social behaviour. The secondary analysis of the 2014 HBSC England data set was followed by a qualitative research phase which captured different yet related elements of relational bullying, with a particular focus on the experience and perception of the young person.