ANÁLISIS E INTERPRETACIÓN DE LOS RESULTADOS

Government initiatives and international support have changed the media landscape during 2011–2016. Media freedom and affordable telecommunication have significant impact on society at large and enterprises in particular. Successive administrations prior to 2011 were able to manage the media for the promotion of government policy and activities. In the past, such narrow function of the media as a propaganda tool was further constrained by censorship. The press censorship board and its pre-publication censorship were notorious and the country was in the top ten of ‗least free‘ countries in Freedom House‘s press freedom index from 2002 to 2010. The country left that group in 2011 due to improvements made after 2011 (Open Society Foundation, 2013). A study noted,

Since the reform process began in 2011 there have been significant improvements in the rights to freedom of expression, including loosening of restrictions on the media, and in peaceful assembly and the ability to stage peaceful protests. (MCRB, 2014: 73)

Some drastic measures were undertaken in liberalizing the media such as termination of pre-censorship and dissolution of the Press Scrutiny Board.132

In 2012, Myanmar Press Council was re-organized as the Interim Media Council, with leaders and members of major media associations in place of the government-appointed 20-member core press council.133

The Printing and Publishing Enterprise Law and the News Media Law enacted on 14 March 2014 become the first legislation to give greater freedom to the media (Edward, 2017, the Diplomat).134

Civil society‘s voices were brought on board in media legislation, signalling an inclusive and consultative process135

(UNESCO, 2016: 23) (Lisa, 2013: 695-6). Although print media organizations were required to register with the Ministry of Information, licensing requirements are relaxed under the new Printing and Publishing Enterprise Law. In line with the News Media Law, the Interim Media Council serves as an independent regulatory body which drafted and adopted a media Code of Conduct (COC) in 2014. A new Broadcasting Law opens licensing to private, public and community broadcasters, and licensing is to be managed by a civilian council to ensure plurality and diversity. In addition to increased availability of information from media, the government has been proactively making available new laws, announcements and activities of its agencies (UNESCO, 2016: 18). Along with media development in the country, people enjoy greater freedom of expression and UNESCO reports on the extent of freedom of expression in Myanmar, stating:

In practice, more citizens are beginning to express their views and opinions publically despite continued uncertainty regarding how far their rights extend. In a nationally representative survey, respondents were asked how free they felt they were to ‗say what they think‘. Sixty nine per cent responded ‗Very Free‘ or ‗Somewhat Free‘, although this figure dropped to forty three per cent when the question included mention of the government. (UNESCO, 2016: 15)

132

Pre-publication censorship was abolished in August 2012 and the press scrutiny board was dissolved in January 2013.

133

The Myanmar Press Council was formally organized on 21 October 2015.

134

Pyidaungsu Hluttaw [Union Parliament] Law No. 12, the News Media Law and Law No. 13, the Printing and Publishing Enterprise Law 13, the Printing and Publishing Enterprise Law was promulgated on 14 March 2014.

135

Development of the media was supported by international agencies such as UNICEF, UNESCO, International Media Services and International IDEA and some state-funded training by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), Voice of America, Japan and Chinese State-funded media organizations provided media training to journalists and state media (Trevor 2016). UNDP supported the development of state/regional media networks in the seven states/regions, enabling them to conduct joint initiatives and assist each other in translation of government documents and verifying against misquotes and mis-translation (Art of Networking NGO, p. 15).

Improvement in the formal media was accompanied by the social media development in the country. The introduction of telecommunication sector reforms enlivened the public space opened by freer media and investigative reports. As the cost of SIM cards was slashed from 300 USD in 2012 to 1.5 USD in 2015 (The World Bank, 2015: 2) and as affordable mobile phone services reached most people in town and villages, social media traffic grew heavy and opened the eyes of many who had been less exposed to diverse sources of news and information. Online media traffic intensified, as internet censorship barely existed from 2012. UNESCO mentions survey results from the Open Net Initiative in its report, which reads:

In August 2012, Internet censorship in Myanmar was largely removed. At that time, the Open Net Initiative conducted a content filtering test in which only five of 541 websites identified to have political content were blocked. In short, restrictions on Internet content have been relaxed significantly since 2012 and Internet users have been able to view, upload and post content that is critical of the government with few actualized reprisals. (UNESCO, 2016: 42,44)

Freer and affordable access to formal and social media enabled and empowered people in greater engagement in civil life and allowed them to have a voice on matters which impact their lives. Increasingly empowered civil society with freer media in their hands means a stronger voice against violation of human rights and against political or socio-economic exploitation by state and businesses. State and enterprises are increasingly held accountable for their activities. Any infringements are promptly reported in social and formal media, drawing wider attention from the whole society. Serving as amplifier on best practices as well as whistle- blowers and investigators against malpractice and exploitation, the power of freer media become recognizable in the transitioning period. How such media developments can lead to

changes in the business community‘s perception and actions is discussed under the heading below.