Análisis e interpretación de los resultados

Finally, previous research has demonstrated a positive link between migrant status, poverty, and over-indebtedness. Using data from the European Quality of Life (EQLS) survey,78 _{results showed migrants to be among Europeans most at risk of running}

into both mortgage/rent and utility arrears, even after correcting for other factors such as income, social networks, and number of children, and other socio- demographic variables. Data from Germany79 _{also shows that though the proportion}

of non-German citizens in the population rose from 7.9% in 2006 to 8.7% in 2010, the proportion of over-indebted non-German citizens rose from 9.7% in 2006 to 15.0% in 2010, illustrating both a relative and absolute growth in over-indebtedness in this group. Research in the Netherlands also found that 25% of households with at least one parent born abroad suffered from some form of arrears, though this proportion decreased from 2010 to 2011.80

From research performed for the present study, an interviewee working for public authorities in Belgium reported that the poorer position of non-EU citizens is reflected in all poverty indicators (see also comments in box below).

Migration and citizenship status

"Immigration and unemployment are crucial. These two elements are obstacles for insertion or re-insertion in the labour market. Many immigrants have lost their jobs with the fall of the construction industry and services related to it and now have more difficulties for finding a job." (Stakeholder from Spain)

"Households with an immigrant background cannot always be reached by current measures, commonly because of language problems. There are immigrant households that are looking for help, but the debt advice centre does not have

anyone who would be able to help them in their language." (Stakeholder from

Germany)

5.8

CHANGES SINCE THE FINANCIAL CRISIS

The plurality (49%) of stakeholders in the present study reported a significant change in types of households affected by over-indebtedness, with only 17% saying they noticed hardly any or no change at all. (A significant portion, 34%, said they did not know or did not answer this question). Numerous comments emphasised that the risk of over-indebtedness had grown in previously middle-class households, who were

affected by the freeze in credit due to the financial crisis combined with falling incomes and asset values.

The increase in difficulties faced by middle class people meant that the links with education and income levels were not as strong as they had been in the past. One of the aspects of the current financial crisis that many stakeholders commented on was that even people with higher levels of education and/or income have been hit by job cuts and unemployment over the past five years. This was particularly the case in countries hit by the crisis such as Greece and Ireland, as shown in the comment box below:

Changes in the types of over-indebted households

"Middle-class people are more and more affected by over-indebtedness, as a result of crisis and unemployment. Another factor for this situation could be the drop of middle-class families income and savings as a result of the crisis in the property sector. Due to the huge supply of flats for rental the potential for having an additional income from flats rented out has been diminished sharply." (EU level stakeholder interview)

"More middle and higher class clients. [Our] organisation has not been active for a very long time. It started in 2008, so observations are based on this period. In the first and second year of operation the majority of clients were those with a very low income. Recently, more and more clients with higher incomes have been noted (white-collar workers)." (Stakeholder interview Czech Republic)

"In my view, those most affected are people who borrowed on the strength of good incomes but who have lost their jobs. Maybe six or seven years ago they had no problem with debts at all. House prices rose very rapidly and a lot of people were just able to borrow enough to buy their house but then they lost their job or their income decreased. These are people who would have looked like good prospects for banks with no real problem but now suddenly their income was halved." (Stakeholder interview Ireland)

"Earlier banks were very reliant on people who had stable wages, particularly civil servants. It was very easy for them to get access to credit, there were special mortgages, types of loan offered for them. Right now these jobs are being cut in Greece, as are wages. These people are particularly vulnerable. What was an affordable amount of credit before is now unaffordable. My impression is that middle class is particularly affected and that a lot of it is 'attained middle-classness'. People who were upwardly mobile, whose parents do not have financial resources now to support them." (Stakeholder interview Greece)

"The number of households that have income from a paid job as opposed to welfare has significantly increased. The same applies to the number of households with mortgages. The 'middle-class' is increasingly indebted. (Stakeholder interview the Netherlands)