Análisis Económico

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5.2.1 Generations and WLB

Understanding the WLB levels for different generations, could promote a positive working environment and at the same time retain happy, fulfilled individuals (Potgieter & Barnard, 2010). If employers do not take the needs of both the organisation and its individuals into consideration, they will open themselves up to having to deal with dissatisfied, unproductive employees, reducing the future commercial sustainability of the company. According to previous research (Frye & Breaugh, 2004; Heathfield, 2013; Hudson Global Resources, 2005), low levels of WLB cause:

• perception of decreased control over work and non-work demands; • less productive people;

• less committed people;

• people who are less satisfied with life;

• people who suffer reduced PWB and poor physical health; and

• people who suffer from mood disorders, anxiety disorders or substance dependency.

However, previous research has also shown there are significant business benefits associated with high levels of WLB (Friedenberg et al., 2008; Guest, 2001; Meister & Willyerd, 2012). It has been reported that employers were experiencing benefits, such as improved recruitment and retention rates, with associated cost savings, reduced absenteeism and sick leave usage, reduction in employee stress and improvements in satisfaction and loyalty. This led to greater flexibility for business operating hours, improved productivity, improved corporate image, and becoming an ‘employer of choice’ (Friedenberg et al., 2008; Guest, 2001; Meister & Willyerd, 2012).

Whilst business reap the benefits of high WLB levels, employees in such organisations also reported significant benefits, such as being able to manage multiple responsibilities at home, work and in the community effectively without guilt or regret (Brink et al., 2015; Weiss, 2014). They were able to work in flexible ways so that earning an income and managing family commitments became easier, and they felt that they were being part of a supportive workplace that values and trusts staff (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003).

90 a diverse set of interests and high WLB levels (Friedenberg et al., 2008). Satisfactory involvement in multiple roles provides a number of benefits, rather than strain on the individual. Positive balance means that resources, learning, opportunities and support in one domain can be used to enhance optimal functioning in another domain (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2003).

From the above arguments, it seems that researchers and WLB coaches need to understand what the indicators of positive and negative WLB are. When individuals understand the indicators of each state of balance, they can find strategies and interventions that allow them to keep their centre of control. Knowing what the positive or negative triggers are will help the individual to anticipate stress and to implement solutions proactively in advance. Understanding how the way of work has changed and that all spheres of life are always connected, could help navigate a healthy balance of work and personal lives, and help promote SWB. Researchers need to understand the need to measure, control and optimise positive WLB, and ways to make the necessary changes in individual lives to improve well-being, satisfaction and personal effectiveness to create flourishing individuals.

5.2.2 WLB and SWB

WLB has been found to influence SWB and vice versa (Clark, 2000; Clarke et al., 2004; De Klerk & Mostert, 2010; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Gonzalez-Mulé & Cockburn, 2017; Keyes, 2007; McMillan et al., 2011; Nizam & Kam, 2018). Researchers generally agree that WLB is related to individual well-being and an overall sense of harmony in life (Clark, 2000).

Researchers and managers generally recognise that a lack of SWB could potentially affect employees and organisations in negative ways. Studies show that having high WLB levels, or working for companies that promote WLB tend to have a positive influence on improving SWB (Bakker & Oerlemans, 2011; Clark, 2000; Diener et al., 2008; Diener et al., 2017; Hoffmann-Burdzinska & Rutkowska, 2015; Park et al., 2009).

It is generally agreed that WLB is important for an individual’s SWB, and that high self- esteem, satisfaction, and an overall sense of harmony in life could be regarded as indicators of good work-life balance (Clark, 2000; Clarke et al., 2004). According to

91 Kuykendall and Tay (2015), impaired employee SWB, through its influence on physiological processes and subsequently on individual and societal health, could cause a considerable physical and financial burden for individuals and societies.

It has been found that high levels of WLB can improve SWB and personal effectiveness (Barker Caza & Wrzesniewski, 2014; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Warr, 2012; Welch & Welch, 2005). WLB enables individual to feel as if they are paying attention to all the important aspects of their lives, and they consequently feel more optimistic (Heathfield, 2013). If individuals spend the majority of their time on work-related activities and feel as if they are neglecting the other important components of their lives, stress and unhappiness will result.

Merrill and Merrill (2003) report that individuals participating in their research who confirmed experiencing balanced lives, had higher job satisfaction overall, and were productive and motivated workers who enjoyed their work and life interests, making them happier individuals who were more optimistic about the future. According to Millward (2011) and Yeandle (2005), having balance between work and life outside work is encouraged, because it reinforces social values and inclusion, and effective functioning of people and overall well-being (Wayne et al., 2015). WLB plays a role in the satisfaction of individuals and their happiness with life. Hoffmann-Burdzinska and Rutkowska (2015) found that WLB of an individual is one of the factors that affect satisfaction or happiness with life as a whole and can be measured through the construct of SWB. Positive emotions, such as happiness, optimism, self-esteem, and engagement, which are all constructs related to SWB, enhance organisational performance (Hoffmann-Burdzinska & Rutkowska, 2015; Luthans, 2012).

Industrial and organisational psychologists and organisations need to understand and conceptualise the importance of SWB and the impact of WLB levels and the effects these have on the productivity of the organisation. High WLB levels and high levels of SWB are achieved when people are satisfied with their work and life roles.

5.2.3 SWB and generations

Previous studies have shown that there are also relationships between SWB and generations, and significant relationships were reported between SWB and age (Butkovic et al., 2012; Eryilmaz, 2012; Hoffmann-Burdzinska & Rutkowska, 2015).

92 SWB was also found to be related to psychological factors such as:

• internal locus of control and self-esteem (Diener, 2000b; Frone, 2003; Hoffmann-Burdzinska & Rutkowska, 2015; Hsieh, 2004);

• personal resources, such as happiness (Diener et al., 2008; Park et al., 2009; Petrides, 2009); and

• optimism (Medlin & Faulk, 2011; Rothmann & Essenko, 2007; Seligman, 2011).

5.3 DIFFERENCES IN WLB LEVELS AND SWB LEVELS ACROSS THE