Análisis elemental.

cumulative and linear theory on the nature of constructivist learning (2000). This dilemma has led to this study being underpinned by multiple leading constructivist theories, including those of Piaget (1953, 1973) and Vygotsky (1978), which have been the cornerstones of constructivism. Dewey (1933, 1938) and Bruner (1960, 1966, 1973, 1996) also contributed to the constructivist models used in learning and teaching today.

Schunk (2012) and Baviskar et al. (2009), amongst others, note that Bloom’s (1956) classification of higher and lower levels of educational objectives have been pervasive in learning and teaching methodologies for almost 50 years. Although these levels may overlap and may not be clearly delineated, they appear to provide a basis for categorising the types of thinking skills generated. Baviskar et al.’s (2009) explain that the constructivist framework of the four critical elements in constructivist pedagogy runs parallel to the learning theories of Piaget, Dewey and Bruner. These are: building on prior knowledge; creating cognitive dissonance (the learner is aware of the difference between prior knowledge and new knowledge); application of the knowledge and reflection on the learning.

Although constructivism encourages student-centred learning, constructivism advocates that the teaching practices and the way the lesson is structured can stimulate students to engage actively with the content (Schunk, 2012). Tasks can include reading, writing, being questioned, allowing questions, requiring students to construct a practical model to connect theory, reviewing through role play and quizzes and encouraging reflection (Biggs and Tang, 2007; Entwistle and Ramsden, 2015; Marzano, 2011).

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Baviskar et al. (2009) affirm that constructivist learning features include being cognitively active, that is, using analysis and evaluation, with new knowledge built on prior knowledge and learning occurring by applying or constructing through self-reflection and critical analysis. These same skills are considered by policy makers to be essential for the 21st_- century working world, and include understanding, analysing, evaluating and synthesising (NQA, 2013 cited in chapter 1, para. 5). Global pedagogic trends appear to be moving in the same direction (section 2.1) by requiring these same skills—identified as HOTS—to be cultivated in primary, secondary and tertiary education. For example, Shaping the future, we want, the final report of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, encourages the use of pedagogic strategies that “stimulate pupils to ask questions, analyse, think critically and make decisions” and are “more student-centred, moving from rote memorization to participatory learning” (UNESCO, 2014, p. 65). These same pedagogic approaches are encapsulated in UAE Vision 2021 (2010, p. 23) and the UAE National Qualifications Authority (2013, p. 11). The Vision, as well as the mission statements and strategic objectives at University X (where the case study was undertaken), state that student-centred pedagogic approaches are pursued, and skills like critical thinking, creativity, analysing, evaluation, innovation and research form a part of the institution’s desired learning outcomes (University X Faculty Handbook 2017–2018).

The term “constructivism,” however, remains vague and, as Cronje (2006) argues, constructivist pedagogic approaches can range anywhere from radical to moderate to “pseudo- constructivism.” In radical constructivism, the learning process of discovery works from the bottom up, as it is led by the student (Schunk, 2012). In moderate forms of constructivism, knowledge is co-constructed between those who are knowledgeable (faculty members) and those who are competent learners (Bandura, 1986; Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Pseudo-

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constructivism, as Techart (2003) explains, follows traditional TCP but is masked with constructivist terminology however, constructivism is not practised.

In analysing the UAE’s policy directives, such as those mentioned in chapter 1 (para. 5), the direction sought in the UAE framework is one of a moderate type of constructivism, wherein knowledge is co-constructed by faculty and students (University X Faculty Handbook 2017–2018 and Coburn, 199). Coburn (1991) explains this interface of curriculum and student within a specific context can be influenced by the culturally held beliefs which Coburn (1991) termed as contextual constructivism. Coburn (1991) argues that contextual constructivism can raise new research questions and paradigms.

Based on these assumptions (linking constructivist pedagogic learning theories to the learning outcomes sought by the UAE educational systems and at University X) the moderate type of constructivism was selected for this study to form the theoretical framework.

Table 2. 1 Parallel Concepts of Constructivist Learning Theories

Piaget Dewey Bruner Vygotsky

Prior knowledge Metacognition Prior knowledge Prior knowledge Metacognition Critical thinking Make meaning Asking questions Critical reasoning Analyse Inductive reasoning Decision making Self-reflection Evaluate Decision making Support/guidance

Group work Reflection Problem solving Problem solving

Activity-based Problem Solving Activity-based Practical tasks

Therefore, the theoretical framework includes the foundational concepts as listed in Table 2.1 above as proposed by Piaget (1953, 1973), Dewey (1933) and Bruner (1960), whose terminologies may differ but the concepts remain similar. These theories align with numerous studies that followed, including Baviskar et al. (2009), Biggs and Tang (2007), Brookhart (2010), Cronje (2006), Entwistle (2000), Entwistle and Ramsden (2015), Guba and Lincoln (1994), Marzano (2011), Pask (1976) and Schunk (2012). The same concepts listed in Table 2.1 above are the characteristics of SCP stimulating DAL and the resultant expected outcomes

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of HOT (Brookhart, 2010 and Hanover Research, 2011). These are promoted as key features of today’s knowledge economies (UNESCO, 2000; WEF, 2015 cited in section 2.1).

Building on the foundational theories of constructivism, SCP / TCP, higher and lower- order thinking and the deep/surface approaches to learning critical to this study are explored below.

In this study, the terms SCP / TCP will be used to refer to teaching approaches used by faculty while the terms DAL, SAL and deep / surface approaches to learning (D/SAL) shall be used to refer to the learning approaches taken by the students

2.4.2 Higher-order thinking. Brookhart (2010) and Hanover Research (2011) propose