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In addition to reference and ellipsis and substitution, cohesion can also be achieved through different kinds of word associations between the vocabulary or lexical items in a text. This is called lexical cohesion and is achieved through arranging words in different kinds of taxonomic relationships according to their meanings. The most important taxonomic relationships are repetition, synonymy, antonymy, and relationships of class to member and whole to part.

Word assocations such as repetition, synonymy and antonymy are not diffi cult concepts for students. However, the concept of relating words as members of classes or parts of a whole may not be familiar. Both of these relationships can be made clear by constructing tree diagrams around meanings. For example, the word ‘theatre’ can be seen as a general class of thing which includes types of theatre, such as musical, comedy and drama. musical comedy drama … (Types of) theatre

Figure 9.1: Class-to-member relationship

However, ‘theatre’ may also be thought of as a whole thing, either a physical entity entering into relationship with concrete parts such as a stage, seats, wings, or as an abstract concept with aspects such as direction, production, set design and costume.

stage seats wings … (Types of) theatre: concrete

Figure 9.2: Whole-to-part relationship (concrete)

direction set design production costume … (Types of) theatre: abstract

Figure 9.3: Whole-to-part relationship (abstract)

Substitution occurs when an element is replaced with a shorter word such as ‘one’ or ‘some’. For example:

Event theatre performances such as the one [event theatre performance] given by Year 9 students …

While ellipsis and substitution are used in written language, they are most prevalent in spoken dialogue. The following extract from a television news broadcast includes several instances of both ellipsis (in brackets) and substitution (in bold).

Text 9.11

Newsreader: Our correspondent, Ron Biddle, is at the scene of the volcano. Ron, what can you see from where you are now?

Ron Biddle: Well, [I can see] lots of ash and the occasional eruption from

the volcano.

Newsreader: Has there been one recently?

Ron Biddle: The last [eruption] was about an hour ago. But they’re expecting more [eruptions] as the night goes on.

Newsreader: Has there been much talk of evacuation?

Ron Biddle: Yes, there was some earlier today, but they haven’t made any

decisions yet.

Newsreader: Well, let us know when they do [decide].

Ellipsis and substitution are common in spoken mode because much of what is being said can be taken for granted and need not be repeated at every turn. In written mode, however, they need to be used sparingly as it can be very tiresome for the reader having to constantly retrieve missing information.

Exercise 9.6

Identify examples of ellipsis in the following extract. Discuss how the use of ellipsis helps to create the character of Martin’s grandmother.

Text 9.12: extract from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ by Ursula Dubosarsky Martin’s grandmother had an English accent, like someone on an English television program. ‘I’m a Londoner, of course,’ she said. ‘Always a Londoner, that’s me.’

She’d left London years and years ago, after the end of World War Two. ‘I was about your age,’ she said to Snow. ‘Hopped on a boat. All by myself. Couldn’t get out of there quick enough.’

Ellipsis and substitution are very important resources for developing a sense of character in dialogue. These resources can be used to reveal social and cultural aspects of a character, and are often used to suggest that a character is refl ecting or thinking aloud.

Exercise 9.7

Expositions such as political speeches typically include a great deal of lexical cohesion to make their arguments hang together. Read text 9.14 and highlight any examples of lexical cohesion.

Text 9.14: extract from Barack Obama’s inaugural address

As for our common defence, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals. Our founding fathers faced with perils that we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience’s sake.

And so, to all other peoples and governments who are watching today, from the grandest capitals to the small village where my father was born: know that America is a friend of each nation and every man, woman and child who seeks a future of peace and dignity, and we are ready to lead once more.

Recall that earlier generations faced down fascism and communism not just with missiles and tanks, but with the sturdy alliances and enduring convictions. They understood that our power alone cannot protect us, nor does it entitle us to do as we please. Instead, they knew that our power grows through its prudent use. Our security emanates from the justness of our cause; the force of our example; the tempering qualities of humility and restraint.

We are the keepers of this legacy, guided by these principles once more, we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort, even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We’ll begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan.

With old friends and former foes, we’ll work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat and roll back the specter of a warming planet.

Use the table to record the lexical sets and comment on the rhetorical effect of lexical cohesion in the text.

Type of lexical cohesion Examples from text 9.14

Repetition

Synonymy

Antonymy

Class-to-member relationship

Whole-to-part relationship

These ways of creating lexical cohesion are particularly important for stitching meanings together in written-like text responses and expositions. The different forms of lexical cohesion used by Jenny in the following extract from her review are identifi ed in table 9.2.

Text 9.13: adapted extract from ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ by Jenny, Year 9

The challenge of Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. It must be more intimate, more confronting, and the connection between the audience and the performers must be extremely strong and identifi able. During the planning, rehearsing, making and performing of our group’s piece, we had to incorporate this idea as well as use specifi c theatrical techniques. This particular performance had to be based on an environmental issue that was also relevant to the audience. Therefore, certain theatrical techniques were vital to fulfi l our goal of engaging the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message or concept to our specifi ed audience.

The most basic technique we used was that of exaggeration. Every single element of our performance had to be exaggerated. This meant that we had to use more intricate techniques to achieve this level of exaggeration while still being understandable. The idea of exaggerating everything was one that remained extremely important throughout the whole process of the production. Every prop, including a TV, a microwave, a hairdryer, plugs and a powerboard, was made to be larger than life, and having the appliances strapped onto headpieces meant that the props were easier to manipulate and gave them a sense of character.

Type of lexical cohesion Examples from text 9.13 Repetition

(words that are repeated across a text)

exaggeration techniques

Synonymy

(words that are similar in meaning)

vital/important message/concept

exaggerated/larger than life piece/performance Antonymy

(words that have opposite or contrastive meanings)

Environmental, Street and Event theatre/traditional theatre basic/intricate

audience/performers

Class-to-member relationship prop: TV, microwave, hairdryer, plugs, powerboard theatrical techniques: exaggeration (+ music etc.)

Whole-to-part relationship (Production of) our group’s piece: planning, rehearsing, making and performing Table 9.2

The lexical items in a text form sets of words that are associated in different ways. Given that the purpose of text 9.13 is to describe the theatrical techniques used in a performance, it is not surprising that many words are associated by class-to-member and whole-to-part relationships. The comparison of the two types of performances also uses antonymy, while repetition helps to keep the focus on the particular technique described in each paragraph.

136 Working Grammar Resources for building cohesive texts 137