The second stage in business communications is to produce originated text into a final format for further use. This is normally a conversion into typed script (including composition and one type of microfilming).
This phase of text processing generally is time-consuming and costly.
3.4.1 Typing
Typing today is basically performed by means of manual or
electric typewriters and word processors (automatic text-editing work stations with or without visual display terminals) linked to electronic printing devices.
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-A manual typewriter is one where all the functions must be carried out manually. Since the introduction of electric
typewriters there has been a gradual changeover to these machines which offer easier handling and less effort resulting in higher productivity. A recent study by Diebold(lO) shows that the total number of manual typewriters installed in Europe still exceeds the number of electric typewriters.
Little, if any, information given in the literature on typing efficiency is substantiated by scientific data. Equipment
vendors tend to carry out surveys and their findings of ten become the norm. In the U.S.A. a number of consultancy firms specialise in word processing and have built up historical data to the
extent that they can draw useful conclusions, or they may have valid figures for a particular type of industry. It seems as if
there is a good correlation between these "industry standards"
and the situation in general in South Africa and in the assurance industry in particular. There seems to be consensus that:
(a) Theoretical output (free typing rate) is much higher than standard performance. Interruptions and activities
associated with the typing process, such as paper handling, setting-out of text and error corrections drastically
reduce the theoretical output. The accepted average standard is 640 lines per day(ll). Very often actual output may even be lower than standard output as a result of inexperience or poor supervision. This leads to a high unit cost.
(b) According to Diebold(l 2) studies reveal that a typing error (e.g. striking a wrong key) occurs about every 600 keystrokes which as a percentage is marginal. It means, however, that on average at least one typing error may occur per page resulting in a time-consuming action of correcting it, especially if carbon copies are involved.
If legal documents are typed no alterations are allowed, necessitating frequent retyping of documents with the same chance that an error may again occur.
(c) Texts are often of a repetitive nature with very few variations. The effect on actual production in terms of final documents is obvious. This process is slow and has a direct influence on cycle-times in dealing with business communications.
This situation means that the maximum production by means of typewriters depends on the optimum operator output - a factor which, once achieved, is not easy to improve on, since there is a direct relation between operator speed, machine speed and
output. This means that unit cost is negatively affected by any increased cost structure due to increased salaries and/or cost of materials used.
An alternative is automated equipnent with text-editing facilities mostly referred to as word processors. Different systems will be dealt with in the next chapter. In this context reference is merely made to the characteristics of word
processors.
Word processors differ from manual and electric typewriters in four basic aspects:
(i) They use computer logics and software, with the exception of earlier models where the functions are hard-wired.
These qualities mean that text, once entered, can be handled electronically and manipulated under program control. The machine operator uses keys to enter certain
instructions to be executed electronically.
(ii) A storage or recording mediun such as paper tape, magnetic card, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and/or internal memory is used. Any of these media offers the facility to store text for later revision without having to retype it. On equipnent with internal memory only, the text will not remain when switched off.
(iii) The input (keying) function is separate from the output (printing) function, although the latter may be an integrated part in some systems. In typewriters output depends on how fast an operator can key in the text.
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-Word processors allow the operator to key in a particular document whilst another document originated or revised before can be printed at the same time. In practice an operator may print a long document and simultaneously prepare text by means of the keyboard where the memory capacity is large enough. Visual display terminals are increasingly being used as input devices for this purpose.
(iv) Text manipulation can take place and may be compared with proofreading of text on paper. Different signs are used in proofreading, inter alia to re-arrange paragraphs, change or correct words, inse.rt additional text or delete some.
Text-editing includes the insertion, deletion, amendment and selection of text. Function keys which perform these functions automatically are used. This means that the rekeying of text is unnecessary - just correcting or amending the original script.
Word processors store typed text for manipulation and repeated typing as desired and eliminate most of the disadvantages
associated with manual or electric typewriters. They may lead to increased productivity, better turnaround time, higher quality, .less proofreading by the end user and a reduction in cost.
Ruprecht(lJ) indicates that production can be between 3 anc 8 times more than on standard typewriters depending on the type of word processor used.
3 .4 .2 Composing
This activity is also known as typesetting. Typesetting is a means of text production with the purpose to provide high quality originals for reproduction. The needs in business for this type of material differ widelY.• Offices need forms, manuals,
advertising materials, price-lists, directories, etc. These call for various type styles and sizes which cannot be produced on a typewriter. Most typewriters use a ruonospaced font where every character is equally spaced. In typesetting, each character has
individual spacing which makes for better legibility and takes up less space. Reducing space may result in
fewer pages, saving paper, printing and storage costs. In earlier days preprepared characters in various styles and sizes were cast in an alloy and then manually arranged to form words making up the complete text. A later development for setting type was the use of a machine similar to a typewriter to arrange these characters to form the required text - a slow process calling for highly skilled labour and still being used by many printers.
The next development was that of the composing-typewriter for typing directly onto paper and with the facility to change fonts with various typestyles and sizes. This led to increased
production, but the disadvantages of manual or electric
typewriters were not eliminated. One added disadvantage is that fonts must be changed frequently where different typestyles are used extensively as, for instance, in forms. This type of equipment is also confined to a single size of characters that can be used, necessitating other additional processes. These composing-typewriters are used on a limited scale by printers.
The largest user-base is organisations with in-house printing facilities.
The advent and scop2 of word processors greatly benefitted
typesetting. The same principles of computer logic and softwar.e, storage media, separate input/output facilities and
text-manipulation capability allowed slightly adapted equipment to be used as input devices, whilst a combination of electronics and optics allows text to be typeset by a photographic process, referred to as phototypesetting.
The advantages resulting from word processors now also apply to composing.
3.4.3 Computer output microfilm (COM)
As an alternative to producing text on paper when utilising electronic text processing equipment, microforms may be used.
Technology allows text in digitised form to be transferred onto film by linking a filming unit with a computerised device using the required software. By utilising telecommunications
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-facilities with a computer, text originated by means of an automated typewriter can be transferred onto 16 or 35 mm roll film or 105 mm microfiche. This process is known as computer output microfilm.