Análisis regional de la pobreza subjetiva

The term ‘independent’ or ‘indie’ originated in the punk movement in the UK, when small record labels produced music, proclaiming their authenticity and alterity in contrast to ‘the mainstream’. Indie as a label for a given music genre, according to Hesmondhalgh (1999), was coined due to its style of industrial organisation while reflecting popular culture’s rejection of the idea that only large companies can make records (Jones, 2012). Ho (2003) suggests that in the 1970s the record industry in Taiwan was a rather different context compared to the UK. He lists a few reasons for these differences, including a lack of popular political mobilisation given martial law, along with the lack of alternative distribution networks. Thus, ‘independent’ as a musical label in Taiwan at the time, did not have similar connotations. Ho’s analysis of a Taiwanese label, Crystal Records, underlines how an

aesthetic claim to be independent can be a marketing strategy for a small company, while the latter still collaborates with major companies. As previously mentioned, Rock Records might be categorised as an independent to begin with, but it transformed itself into a transnational company at a later stage.

One reason behind these differences is the co-existence of TNCs and local labels. As

previous mentioned, Rock Records, a locally established transnational label, was categorised as an indie (Levin, 1995) in contrast with the TNCs. Around the 2000s, digitalisation and the internet had a significant impact on Taiwan’s recording industry, in some ways very similar to other countries: file-sharing led to a decline in revenue, while major companies – including Rock Records – suffered the most (Culpan, 2001). As Strachan (2007) argues, the system of ‘micro-independents’ and bedroom producers has also thrived in this context. One example marking this change is the Street Voice website, originally a Taiwanese site for musicians to post up their work and which has now extended its services to Hong Kong and China while also curating music festivals. In 2016, the rock band No Party for Cao Dong (草東沒有派對) released their first album, The Servile (醜奴兒), which was only distributed through

unconventional channels such as coffee shops. All of their albums and concerts in Taiwan sold out quickly with their success underlining the impact of micro-independents.

The spatial attributes of indie music are also an important marker, and ‘live houses’ in Taiwan play a significant role in this scene. As Jian (2017) has noted, one of the most remarkable venues in Taiwan, the Underworld (地下社會), has been an important spot for indie bands. The Underworld opened in 1996, coinciding with the decade in which Taiwan’s earlier generations of rock bands became active. These bands include LTK Commune (濁水 溪公社) and ChthoniC (閃靈), two groups who are provocative in relation to Taiwan’s politics, and Mayday, the latter being the leading pop/rock band in the Chinese-speaking world. Other venues that joined the nightlife scene in Taipei include Witch House, Riverside, the Wall, and Legacy, while the Underground eventually shut down due to issues associated with urban gentrification and opposition from local middle-class residents (Jian, 2017); another venue, Legacy, opened in 2010 inside Huashan 1914 Creative Park. The

establishment of this cultural park was assisted by Taiwanese government’s investment in cultural and creative industries at the time. A legal music venue that could accommodate an audience of a thousand, music acts signed by large labels have also performed in Legacy. These two venues provide examples of how policy can affect, alter, or refine a sense of independence.

Another issue is that an ‘independent sound’ is, aesthetically speaking, never easy to identify and categorise. After some artists whose music is considered more ‘independent’ became popular not only in Taiwan but also in China, including the band Sodagreen, singer-

songwriters Cheer Chan (陳綺貞) and Dessert Chang (張懸), the term ‘Little Fresh’ (小清新) came to characterise a musical style, sound, as well as image. Associated with the notion of indie pop, this music is often accompanied by acoustic guitar and usually depicts more lighthearted themes. There are many different bands in Taiwan, but those associated with the ‘Little Fresh’ aesthetics has left a strong impression on the PRC’s music audience14_{. This}

phenomenon exemplifies the construction of ‘cultural imaginations’ among music audiences in different locations, and this will be addressed again in the Conclusion (Chapter 9).

Hesmondhalgh (1999) concludes from his case studies that post-punk production aesthetics

14 _{Zhang Xiao-zhou, a Chinese music critic and writer, wrote an article named ‘Little fresh reunite big China’}

(2013) for his column in QQ.com., in which he associated the aesthetics of ‘Little fresh’ with indie-pop, and in the context of contemporary Chinese-speaking regions, as depoliticised. He critiqued an event in which the Taiwanese singer Dessert Chang cancelled her concerts in Beijing after holding a ROC flag passed by the audience in Manchester, UK. See: https://xw.qq.com/cmsid/CUL2013111300377002.

can be useful in terms of arriving at a better understanding of Taiwan’s ‘indie’ music:

partnership and professionalisation cannot be directly interpreted as a compromised aesthetic without further investigation of different eras’ cultural politics. In today’s Taiwan, music produced by smaller labels keep challenging the TNCs and the major companies. However, ‘indie’ also functions as a prevailing term or marker employed by various stakeholders. In our time interviewing, terms such as ‘indie bands’, ‘mainstream music’, ‘independent record labels’ were frequently used by interviewees. Although Jay Chou owns his own label and production company, the general perception of this Mandopop star is that he is, to some extent, ‘independent’ but also mainstream and commercial. Regardless of the difficulty in finding markers to distinguish the ‘independent’ from the ‘mainstream’ in music production practices, the line between the image of the two is not blurred. As Hesmondhalgh and Meier (2014) argue, the idea of ‘the alternative’, which is closely intertwined with ‘independent’, is still powerful in terms of evoking a more democratised cultural production. For instance, Cheer Chen and Dessert Chang are Taiwanese examples of this ‘alternative’ image, yet they were both signed to major labels while their music tends to be considered as indie. However, whatever layer of independence is implied and in what context are usually left unanswered. It is evident that in today’s Taiwanese music market, market segmentation functions as an effective tool to differentiate music consumers, thereby attracting those who prefer this alternative image. The economic value of such a notion is self-evident.

5.3 Audience and Industry Workers