CAPÍTULO 3: VALIDACIÓN DEL DISEÑO REALIZADO
3.2 V ALIDACIÓN TEÓRICA DEL DISEÑO
3.2.4 Análisis de la seguridad de la base de datos
MM
MMAP AP AP AP 32.432.432.432.4----1.1.1.1. SITE SITES MENTIONED IN SITE SITES MENTIONED IN S MENTIONED IN S MENTIONED IN §§§§32.432.432.4 32.4 32.4 THE AMARNA PERI
32.4 THE AMARNA PERI 32.4 THE AMARNA PERI 32.4 THE AMARNA PERIODODODOD
Dating to Pre-Dynastic times, each town had one or more patron deities. A partial list includes:
TOWNTOWN TOWNTOWN DEITYDEITYDEITYDEITY FORMFORMFORMFORM 2222 Abydos
Abydos Abydos
Abydos Osiris, godOsiris, godOsiris, godOsiris, god of of of of the deadthe deadthe deadthe dead mummymummymummymummy BubastisBubastisBubastisBubastis Bastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun god catcatcatcat DenderaDenderaDenderaDendera Hathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaoh cowcowcowcow EdfuEdfuEdfuEdfu Horus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the sky falconfalconfalconfalcon ElephantineElephantineElephantineElephantine Khnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clay ramramramram The FaiyumThe FaiyumThe FaiyumThe Faiyum Sobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic power crocodilecrocodilecrocodilecrocodile HeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolis Atum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmos manmanmanman HeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolis Re, Re, Re, Re, sun godsun godsun godsun god and creator and creator and creator and creator sunsunsunsun
HermopolisHermopolisHermopolisHermopolis Thoth, moon godThoth, moon godThoth, moon godThoth, moon god ibis, baboonibis, baboonibis, baboonibis, baboon MemphisMemphisMemphisMemphis Ptah, creator godPtah, creator godPtah, creator godPtah, creator god manmanmanman
SaisSaisSaisSais Neith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddess womanwomanwomanwoman ThebesThebesThebesThebes Montu, war godMontu, war godMontu, war godMontu, war god falcofalcofalcofalconnnn ThebesThebesThebesThebes Amun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme god ramramramram
Over the millenia, these gods tended to coalesce, e.g. Re amalgamated Amun of Thebes, Horus of Edfu, Khnum of Elephantine, and Atum of Heliopolis. It can be assumed that at times, members of the priesthoods of these lesser deities were opposed to such an amalgamation with a more powerful cult. The subsumed's political, religious, and financial controls might well have been substantially weakened or totally eliminated, while the priesthood of the surviving compound deity was enriched at the expense of the losers.
In any case, the result was that by the Middle Kingdom the Amun temple at Karnak had emerged as the most powerful in the land. Thus, Amun-(Re) of Karnak, by dint of large scale royal support for this cult, eventually became a "state god".
By then, the Amun temple held large amounts of property, situated not only in the Theban region but throughout Egypt, and by the end of the New Kingdom, it had become a "state within a state" wielding great political power.
2 Often shown in anthropomorphic form, i.e. with the head of an animal (almost always wearing a wig) and body of a man or woman.
156 FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 32.432.4----1.32.432.41.1.1. KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN NEFERTNEFERTNEFERTNEFERT IIII TTTT I OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATENENENEN....
During the New Kingdom reign of Nebmaatre Amenhotep (18-9, 1417-1379), Egyptian religious belief had become increasingly "solarized" and sun-theology was the predominant religious belief as it now included the sun disk, the Aten, along with the lesser deities.
It was Neferkheprure Amenhotep3333 (18-10, 1379-1362) who would take the concept one step further, and promulgated a new religion with only one god
ììììtn tn tn tn
,the Aten, "The Sun Disk", from which flowed the cosmos, the earth, and all life. All other gods were now excluded from Amenhotep's concept of religion.
He erected a new capital dedicated to the Aten at
3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtn tn tn tn
. Akhetaten, "The Horizon of the Aten". Known today as Tell el-Amarna, it was located on the east bank of the Nile equidistant between Memphis and Thebes.Neferkheprure Amenhotep adopted a new name in concert with his change in theology:
,4444 changing his prenomen to
nnnn----sw sw sw sw----bbbbììììtttt nfr nfr nfr nfr ḫḫḫḫprw prw prw prw----rrrr ''''----w' w' w' w'----nnnn----rrrr ''''
, "the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Beautiful are the Forms of Re, the Unique One of Re"; and changing his nomen tos3 r s3 r s3 r s3 r ' 3 ' 3 ' 3 ' 3ḫḫḫḫ----nnnn----itn itn itn itn
, Akhenaten, "the Son of Re: the Spirit of the Aten" or "the Son of Re: the One who is beneficial to the Aten".The pharaoh had become the worldly counterpart to the sun disk, and as such, became the heavenly pharaoh as well. The glyph for Re, , was replaced by the sun disk with rays of light issuing forth from it, as shown in Fig. 32.4-1. Each ray ended in a hand which touched all living things as the source for their lives.
3 Also referred to as Amenophis IV or Amenhotep IV. His wife, the queen Nefertiti, is known not only from several wall representations and statues but also from a sculptured head, currently in the Dahlem Museum in Berlin. It is one of the most famous pieces from all of antiquity because of her beauty. See Fig. 32.4-2.
4 Note that the Aten received honorific transposition, just as Re in his cartouche, but not in the writing of the town name 3ẖt-ìtn.
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FIG.
FIG.
FIG.
FIG. 32.432.4----2.32.432.42.2.2. QUEENQUEENQUEENQUEEN NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.
In the Amarna tombs of several courtiers of the period, there are variations of a new hymn to the Aten. This hymn differs significantly from earlier Dynasty 18 sun hymns and is the source for much of our understanding of how the worship of the Aten contrasted to earlier concepts. In the traditional Egyptian worship, the sun god circled around the earth. BBBBY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FORMSORMSORMSORMS:::: in in in the in the the the morning, morning, morning, morning, Khepri;
Khepri;
Khepri;
Khepri;5555 throughout the day throughout the day, , , , Re throughout the day throughout the day ReRe----Harakhti;ReHarakhti;Harakhti;Harakhti;6666 and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum.
In his diurnal journey, Re was accompanied by many deities, and in his nocturnal travels through the underworld, he was accompanied by Osiris and all the dead.
Now, in Akhenaten's concept, the Aten sailed through the sky alone, unaccompanied; there were no other gods. Therefore, no other gods could celebrate his coming and going, only human beings could worship his rising and setting. Akhenaten's reign attempted to end a theology and worship developed over several millenia.
Roughly at the same time, to secure the Aten's supremacy in the land, Amun's name was expunged from monuments and temples
throughout the land in a paroxysm of fanaticism. All public and private displays of his name were removed as well as those of his consort, the goddess Mut. Even sealed tombs were opened to erase Amun's name and change the spelling of the word "mother".7777 The word
m3't m3't m3't m3't
was now spelled out alphabetically in order to avoid using the sign for the "Goddess of Truth", , C10. The plural for "gods",nnnnṯṯṯṯrw rw rw rw
or was nowforbidden, and only the singular form ,
nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr
, was permitted, referring to the one god, the Aten.The process of establishing the Aten as the one and only supreme being was undoubtedly resisted by the entrenched priesthoods, bringing them into direct conflict with the king. The sanctuaries of Amun in Thebes and Osiris in Abydos were particular targets of Akhenaten's reordering of Egyptian religious life.
He closed many other temples, seized their lands, revenues, and treasures, enhancing his royal treasury in order to finance his ambitious building program at
3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtn tn tn tn
.
5 Khepri, in the form of a dung beetle, represented the sun in the morning as it came into being for the new day.
Khepri pushed the sun disk up into the sky, in a manner similar to the Egyptian beetle rolling animal dung into a small ball and pushing it into a hole it had dug in the earth. Khepri was represented by glyph L1, .
6 Harakhti, "Horus of the Horizon" is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. This form of Horus coalesced with the Heliopolitan sun god to become Re-Harakhti, representing a combination of several complex theological concepts about the divine nature of the sun. He is literally "Re Horus of the Two Horizons".
7 The official spelling of "mother", mwt, was changed from to in order to remove any reminder of the goddess Mut, .
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With the full resources of all religious establishments under his command, Akhenaten became very active at Karnak, building no less than five temples there. He then switched his attentions to the construction of his new capital city, probably begun in the fifth year of his reign. At about this time, he moved to Akhetaten from Thebes and, according to the boundary stelae erected by Akhenaten, never strayed from Akhetaten for the remainder of his reign. Boundary stelae of the ancient city have been found cut into the cliffs on both the east and west banks of the Nile, the furthest of which is some 20 km. to the northwest on the west bank of the Nile at Tuna el-Gebel. Thus, Akhenaten envisioned it to be a very large city. Excavations, however, indicate that only a small portion of the city was ever completed, stretching about 6 km. along the Nile and 1 km. to its east. Akhenaten's dream of completing this new city died with him in 1362 BCE, as did the worship of the Aten as the sole god. The temples dedicated to the Aten were eventually abandoned.
His successors, Smenkhkare (18-11, 1364-1361)8888 and Tutankhamun (18-12, 1362-1352) ordered the old temples rehabilitated and their priesthoods reinstated in a return to the old, established order of religion.
The actual dismantling of Akhenaten's works began under the last king of Dynasty 18, Horemheb (18-14, 1348-1320). Finally, Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) would level the city of
3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtn tn tn tn
completely, using the stones from this site along with the temple to the Aten at Karnak, for his massive building programs.Ironically, many of these blocks of stone which had been used in Akhenaten's works, survived the destruction intended for them as they were used as core fillers in new constructions during Dynasty 19, and were found by modern excavators at these later sites.
A portion of Akhenaten's royal correspondence survived the destruction by Ramesses. As many as 377 cuneiform tablets (mostly written in Akkadian9999 from the reigns of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten) have been found and translated. Generally, they were letters to and from other contemporary kings and officials.
They give us a particularly illuminating view into a narrow period in history, especially the calls for military assistance from Egyptian officials stationed abroad, and from Egyptian vassal princes of foreign lands, an indication that Egyptian hegemony was on the wane at the time.
Some of the legacies of Akhenaten's reign were: a temporary eclipse of Egyptian power abroad10101010 in Upper and Lower
rrrrṯṯṯṯnw nw nw nw
, Retjenew (present day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel) and ink3 k3 k3 k3šššš
Cush(northern Sudan); the increased use of mercenaries in the armed forces (Nubians, Libyans, Canaanites, and Sudanese were extensively employed); and the centralization of the economic power in the kinship, albeit over a steadily weakening centralized secular authority. In literature, it has been noted that Psalm 104 of THE THE
THE THE OOOOLD LD LD LD TTTTESTAMENTESTAMENTESTAMENTESTAMENT bears some resemblance to portions of TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGREAT REAT REAT REAT HHHHYMN TO THE YMN TO THE YMN TO THE YMN TO THE AAAATENTENTENTEN found in the tomb of Ay in the cliffs at Amarna. Ay was a powerful court figure during Akhenaten's reign, and later king himself (18-13, 1352-1348). Whether or not the Hebrew psalmist knew of the Egyptian hymn is not known,
8 Possibly a co-regent with Akhenaten.
9 Akkadian was the lingua franca of the near-Eastern ancient world.
10 Some scholars believe that this was caused by Akhenaten's concentration on his domestic programs.
159
nor is it known whether Akhenaten was familiar with the incipient Hebrew concept of one god. In any case, succeeding generations would consider Akhenaten a heretic as the old order reestablished itself in Egypt with a vengeance. His name and the name of the Aten were erased throughout the land and that of Re and Amun were restored to their rightful places. It would remain for the Ramessides of Dynasty 19 (1320-1200) to restore Egypt's military power, its fortunes overseas, and to bring domestic tranquility once again to the land of the Nile.
The last kings The last kings The last kings
The last kings of the 18of the 18of the 18of the 18thththth Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised:
[Modern [Modern [Modern [Modern Name] Name] Name] Name]
32.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T
SIGN T SIGN T
SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION C10:
M15: CLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REEDS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DOWNWNWNWN.... Det. in papyrus and water regions,
ììììddddḥḥḥḥw ww w
, "swamps (of the Delta)",ḏḏḏḏyt yt yt yt
, "papyrus marsh". Det. int3 t3 t3 t3----m m m mḥḥḥḥw ww w
, "Lower Egypt".160 32
32 32
32.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES
TRANSLITERATE AND TR TRANSLITERATE AND TR TRANSLITERATE AND TR
TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:
161
NISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FR ADJECTIVES FORMED FR ADJECTIVES FORMED FR ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM NOUNS OM NOUNS OM NOUNS OM NOUNS
33.1 A of relationship". In English, Nisbes do not exist as such, but the idea is similar to the addition of a
"y" at the end of the word "luck" (a noun), which becomes "lucky" (an adjective).
The "
yyyy
" sound occasionally appears in the fuller writing in the earlier stages of the Egyptian language, particularly in the PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID and CCCCOFFINOFFINOFFINOFFIN texts. However, by the Middle Kingdom, the "yyyy
" was rarely written. For this reason, scholars prefer to transliterate all but the masculine singular nisbes without the "yyyy
" for any Middle Egyptian text or later.33.2 33.2 33.2
33.2 NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES A. THE PARADIGMS
"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVE"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVED."SOUTHERN" IS DERIVE"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVED.D.D.
AS A AS A AS A AS A MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE1111
"NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVED.D.D.D.
A A A AS A S A S A MASCULINE S A MASCULINE MASCULINE MASCULINE NNNISBENISBEISBE ISBE
1 The more complicated versions are presented first, followed by the simpler ones which are preferred.