An´alisis de un panel de datos: diferencias en diferencias

The researcher, using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for Windows version 20.0, entered all quantitative data, stopping at every fifth entry to check for accuracy and to detect any recording errors that might have occurred. The quantitative data was then analysed using descriptive statistics. The Mann- Whitney test was then employed to determine any significant differences between

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the school administrators and schoolteachers, and also gender and nationality (Kinnear & Gray, 2008).

4.6.2 Qualitative Data Analysis

All qualitative data gathered from school administrators and schoolteachers’ comments from the survey questionnaire were analyzed in the original Arabic and then translated into English language. The responses were uploaded into two excel sheets, one for school administrators and another one for schoolteachers to analyse through the development and application of codes and categories as defined by Saldaña (2009), a code is a word or a short phrase that sums up a portion of an interview transcription, while a category includes a group of codes. I gave each participant a number and the participants’ comments were divided into main categories. Each category contained a number of codes in order to be able to see reoccurring patterns and each code was given a letter (Creswell, 2008). Each category was marked with a different colour so that I could ensure that all related codes were gathered under the appropriate category. Table 4 shows samples of the coded comments from administrators and schoolteachers and Table 5 lists the 8 major categories that emerged from the data analysis (See appendices D and E for samples of the coding of school administrators and schoolteachers’ comments and categories).

Table 4: The Coding of School Administrators’ and Schoolteachers’ Comments Administrator

number

Raw Data Code Letter Category

1 Teachers should have a significant role in making educational decisions since they link the student with the school administration, can discover students' skills, and make decisions related to

a) Significant role: SR

SR Degree of teachers' participation

92 students' professional and career development.

2 Increase teachers'

participation and focus on the significance of teachers' involvement in the

development process. For example, they have to participate in selecting what to teach because of their experience. Today, most educational decisions are imposed by the Supreme Education Council and everyone must apply them without discussion. Select what to teach=WT WT Nature of teachers' participation

School administrators and schoolteachers’ 8 major Categories as shown in Table 5 (See Appendix E for the major categories and codes for school administrators and schoolteachers’ comments).

Table 5: Major Categories for School Administrators and Schoolteachers’ Comments

Major Categories

Degree of teachers' participation Nature of teachers' participation Reasons for teachers' participation Nature of school administration's role Nature of SEC role

Nature of SEC control

Nature of school administration's control Reasons for teachers' non-participation

4.6.3 Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire

Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2009) emphasize “validity is an important key to effective research. It is a requirement for both quantitative and qualitative research” (p. 133). Zeller (1988) affirms that any research instrument should be checked for validity to tell whether the items measure what they are supposed to measure and if the data serve the main aim for which they were collected. He states, “a measure is valid if it does what it is intended to do. Alternatively stated, an indicator

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of some abstract concept is valid to the extent that it measures what it purports to measure” (p. 322).

In order to establish validity for this questionnaire, the purpose of the study and the research questions were reviewed and considered when examining the participants and their background. This was to assure that the questions would be appropriate for the sample. With this understanding of the topic and audience, decision statements were generated and aligned to the research questions and details were given to how each statement was written keeping in mind the audience.

This achieves content validity, which is “the degree to which elements of an assessment instrument are relevant to and representative of the targeted construct for a particular assessment purpose” (Haynes, Richard & Kubany, 1995, p. 2). In other words, does the questionnaire measure what it was intended to measure? This is about the researcher’s ability to develop questions that reflect the subject being researched and to assure the key elements of the subject are not excluded.

The statistical reliability for the survey questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient of internal consistency for the questionnaire. Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient was calculated for the questionnaire as a whole and separately for four factors: educational goals and policies, curriculum and instruction, administrative policies for teachers, and administrative policies for students. As shown in Table six, these analyses produced a 0.964 alpha coefficient value for the whole questionnaire, 0.885 value for both educational goals and policies and curriculum and instruction factors, 0.956 value for the administrative policies for teachers factor and 0.80 value for administrative policies for students factor. Based on the Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient, the Instrument has very high reliability.

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Table 6 Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient for the Questionnaire

Category Alpha Coefficient

Whole questionnaire 0.964

Educational goals and policies 0.885 Curriculum and instruction 0.885 Administrative policies for teachers 0.956 Administrative policies for students 0.80