The previous section demonstrated that reconstruction is a project with a series of actions designed to improve the economic, physical, social, and environmental conditions of an area that has been subject to change. This section explains the characteristics associated with urban reconstruction in war-torn cities.
38
2.4.1 Scale of Destructions
It is important to investigate the specifications of war destruction in an urban context to explain how this destruction involves the reconstruction process in urban areas. The significant effects of each war are despair and hopelessness resulting from destroyed housing areas, infrastructure, and a lack of an attractive daily life (Calame, 2005).
Despite the common outcomes in each war, the steps taken in recovery and stabilization as well as the duration of each level of reconstruction in war-torn cities are different due to the conditions of the war event and the scale of destruction (Amartunga & Haigh, 2011; Calame, 2005). Due to the different types of destruction (for example, occupation or aerial warfare) authorities, and policy-makers encounter a wide scope of devastation for reconstruction of urban areas and destroyed buildings after a war (Calame, 2005).
Therefore, extensive fieldwork needs to identify the different impacts of war destruction whereas the vast range of destruction makes further difficulties in reconstruction of urban fabric.
2.4.2 Reconstruction during the War
The duration of incidents is different for each disaster. It may be a few seconds in an earthquake or a few weeks in a flood; however, war generally has a longer duration than natural disasters. Unlike most natural disasters, due to the long-term nature of conflicts, the time between rescue and rehabilitation could be several years in post-war cities. This long pause before the restoration process leads to problematic circumstances during the reconstruction phase (United Nations, 2008). Agrusa, Tanner, and Dupuis (2006) argued that reconstruction and the related aspects of restoration strongly depend on a war's duration. Long wars cause a longer interruption to normal life and this leads to more problems like mass immigration and abandoned cities during the reconstruction process (Cuny et al., 1983; Haas et al., 1977).
39
Reconstruction during the war is usually the result from long-term conflicts. In most natural disasters, the reconstruction and rebuilding movement starts immediately after the event. However, long-term wars need reconstruction that is on-going during the incident (Rabani, 1997). Calame (2005) claimed that reconstruction in Coventry, UK was stalled during the war and helps to preserve and strengthen the spirit among the people against a hostile army as well as strengthen the national will to defend the homeland.
Rabani (1997) argued that reconstruction during a war prevents mass migration from war-torn cities and decreases social problems related to immigration to neighbouring provinces. He also mentioned that assisting a scattered population is more complicated and costly for governments. Furthermore, security cannot ultimately occur until the local population and the military are well placed to undertake certain types of stabilization projects (Natsios, 2005).
2.4.3 Political Considerations for Reconstruction
A post-conflict society needs time to rebuild itself, especially on a human and spiritual level. In natural disasters, other countries and international communities assist the country in crisis by sending vital resources and first aid in the emergency phase and financial assistance and funds for the reconstruction process. Nevertheless, in war conflicts, political considerations influence humanitarian services and funds. Calame (2005) and Kumar (1997) stressed that post-war reconstruction is tied to discernible political priorities and incentives while some governments and international stakeholders avoid helping war-damaged areas and victims to avoid being accused of partiality from the other side of the conflict. Bruchhaus (2002) argued this type of consideration in terms of political sanctions. He mentioned that in peacetime, there may be the need for humanitarian assistance and support for reconstruction and rehabilitation as in the case after such natural disasters as droughts, floods, and earthquakes, meanwhile development efforts go on as usual.
40
For example, reconstruction efforts in Iraq involved sanctions that were applied by the UN at the end of the first Gulf War. Eventually, this weakness in reconstruction required regime change during Operation Iraqi Freedom to fully rehabilitate Iraqi cities (Willsborgstede, 2001).
2.4.4 Relocation of Cities for Reconstruction
Relocation is the last solution for rebuilding. It proposes to avoid relocation or resettlement; unless it is essential for reasons of safety displacement is likely to exacerbate the impacts that a tragedy has on property, social connections, and livelihoods in rural and urban environments (United Nations, 2008). Moving people from such areas can cause psychological trauma and distress. The UN (2008) highlighted that when displacement is necessary, then the priority for those supporting displaced persons is to minimize, as far as is safe, the distance and duration of displacement.
Alexander (2004) argued that few communities are abandoned completely after disaster or relocated entirely to new sites in the discussion of land ownership and pattern of economic activities of relocation. The researcher claimed that there are various other reasons why geographical inertia prevails. For example, the existing pattern of land ownership usually remains after the disaster, which encourages reconstruction in situ by individual landowners. Secondly, the local population is usually keen to restore the pre-existing pattern of economic activities and social relations to regenerate the sense of community. Remaining at home or close to home enables survivors to support them and recover their livelihoods as well as helping to prevent problems arising from overland tenure.
41
However, relocation is not always worthless, occasionally to build a new city with modern facilities, a need to move and settle in new places is a good incentive (Rabani, 1997). It is more important to believe that relocation is not just as a physical act while it is related to a sense of the place towards the original people. A sense of place is the result of relationships between activities, conceptions, and physical attributes in the original place of a city (Groat & Wang, 2013).
Finding an appropriate geographic place and providing facilities and housing to move people is the first step of relocation. In an applicative experience to Khorramshahr, which was a war-torn city in Iran in 1988, one proposal plan for restoration was to create a new city in the safer place and change the ruin city to war museum. However, most of the residence opposed to this plan as sense of pre-war memories of original place (Rabani, 1997). The new location is a place that has no previous environmental and geographical problems and should be appropriate to the future development (Najarian et al., 1996).