Analizar su efecto in vivo ya que el hecho de no presentar un efecto in vitro no representa que estas no pudieran ser candidatas a ser empleadas como probióticos

What are the implications of these distinctive strategies and organizational struc- tures for HRM practices? What types of human resource management practices will support the most effective implementation of these competitive strategies and organizational structures? The contingency model shown in Figure 4.2 suggests the fit between each strategy and structure and corresponding human resource ap- proach or orientation.

E

THNOCENTRIC

O

RIENTATION

Organizations with a global strategy along with a global product division structure are usually required to maintain a higher level of control at headquarters so that they ensure effective coordination and integration among different overseas units. To achieve this goal, they follow an ethnocentric orientation by placing the authority and major decision-making functions in the hands of corporate headquarters (or their expatriate extensions abroad), rather than in the hands of the foreign subsidiaries. Under ethnocentrism, related to a sense of cultural universalism, it is believed that the headquarters home country’s way of doing business is superior or at least prefer- able to any approach followed outside the home country.

To ensure that the headquarters home country’s way is followed, the ethnocentric orientation typically relies heavily on home country expatriate assignments to for- eign operations. Expatriate managers sent from headquarters, in general, enhance an MNC’s control over overseas subsidiaries and reduce the MNC’s reliance on the rigid, distant, bureaucratic control mechanisms that have become less suitable to meet the local diversity and complexity of the global operations of MNCs. The use of expatriates not only prevents the leaking of important information, thereby, pro- tecting technological know-how but also facilitates, through local workforce inter- actions, the transfer of a company’s core competencies to overseas subsidiaries.

The existing literature recognizes several other advantages of staffing foreign sub- sidiaries with expatriates from the home country rather than local host country na-

Figure 4.2 Organizational Fit among Strategy, Structure, and Human Resource Management Approach

Competitive Strategy Organizational Structure HRM Orientation

Global Global Product Division Ethnocentric

Multidomestic Global Area Division Polycentric Transnational Global Matrix Division Geocentric

tionals. Compared to their locally hired counterparts, headquarters home country expatriates are generally believed to have a better understanding of overall corporate priorities, an easier acceptance of headquarters-determined rules, and a greater com- mitment to overall corporate goals. The expatriates’ familiarity with the corporate culture and the control system of headquarters results in more effective communica- tion and coordination.21 _{Expatriates are effective in replicating existing organiza-} tional practices and operating procedures of headquarters in their assigned local units. Furthermore, the transfer of managers from headquarters to the foreign subsidiaries facilitates the creation of an information network consistent with the corporate cul- ture.22 _{This advantage occurs because headquarters home country expatriates can} learn functional behaviors congruent with corporate goals more easily than can local managers, because the expatriates are more likely to understand the corporate cul- ture and strategy. More details of expatriate staffing, including significant potential risks and disadvantages, will be examined later in our chapter on global staffing.

P

OLYCENTRIC

O

RIENTATION

An ethnocentric orientation can lead to cultural myopia, or an overall failure of a firm to understand host country differences that may require different approaches to marketing and management. This idea of cultural myopia is directly associated with pressures of local responsiveness. To address this concern, a polycentric orientation, with a consistent multidomestic strategy, can be utilized to require people from the host country to manage the foreign organization. This type of human resource man- agement practice is based on cultural particularism, which appreciates the distinc- tiveness and idiosyncrasies of different countries. Native host country managers are familiar with the intricacies of the local culture and possess a network of established contacts in the area. In contrast to expatriates, these local managers possess a high degree of local environmental competence but typically a low degree of internal company functional competence. A polycentric orientation, through the employment of host country nationals, eliminates language barriers and avoids adjustment prob- lems faced by expatriate managers and their families.

MNCs can capitalize on the environmental competency of host country candi- dates to ensure efficient operations in the foreign country. The underdeveloped func- tional competency of these candidates can be improved with extensive functional training at company headquarters, which can increase their understanding and ac- ceptance of organizational culture and strategy while providing specific technical training. Overall, a polycentric orientation is a relatively inexpensive alternative for companies that want to expand globally but lack sufficient skill in upper manage- ment positions compared to an ethnocentric orientation.

Despite the benefits of customizing human resource management practices to lo- cal needs by using local managers, a polycentric orientation also has some draw- backs. The lack of global cohesion and uniformity between the various global units may make the strategic shifts difficult to implement. In order for a polycentric orien- tation to be successful, companies need to require a strict adherence to certain corpo- rate standards. A polycentric approach also prevents both host country and parent

company nationals from gaining experience outside their respective countries. Isola- tion can also grow due to language barriers, national loyalties, and cultural differ- ences, particularly when considering the relationship between the various levels of management within the subsidiary and corporate headquarters.

G

EOCENTRIC

O

RIENTATION

A geocentric orientation is aimed at solving the problems associated with an ethno- centric as well as a polycentric orientation. Unlike the previous two approaches, this orientation lies on the assumption that the most qualified and well-trained candi- dates are sought to occupy important management positions within both corporate headquarters and international corporations, regardless of nationality. Such a staff- ing approach for an MNC is attractive in companies with an interdependent organi- zational structure, thus relying heavily on cross-border collaboration between headquarters and overseas subsidiaries as well as among overseas subsidiaries them- selves. It eliminates a hierarchy of influence and facilitates the creation of a truly international company that identifies with the interests of both the parent and host countries by allowing the development of the best people, for the best positions, regardless of location. Therefore, firms following a transnational strategy and divi- sion structure are likely to adopt the geocentric orientation.

A geocentric orientation leads to a strong unified corporate culture and an informal management network because people no longer feel bound by cultural ties and na- tional loyalties. The transfer of core competence is facilitated because an increased number of people are taught the techniques that make the company successful, further contributing to global success. Ideally, organizations should maintain a cadre of cos- mopolitan managers who possess a high degree of both functional and environmental competence. In reality, cosmopolitan candidates may be nonexistent or scarce, leaving firms no choice but to select either expatriates or host country nationals and to provide them with training to improve their functional or environmental areas of weakness.

R

EGIOCENTRIC

O

RIENTATION

Rather than attempting to hire nationals from a specific country, a regiocentric orien- tation expands the candidate pool by seeking people from within a specific region. The regiocentric approach is appealing because it allows and promotes the interac- tion between executives transferred to RHQs from subsidiaries in the region and home country nationals posted to the RHQs. This approach can also be beneficial to the MNCs that continue to experience shortages in well-trained global managers.23 By assigning them to the RHQs, the MNCs can expect to capture more concentrated and effective utilization of scarce human resources than by separately assigning them to local units in a smaller number.

When expatriates are assigned to RHQs, in most cases these managers are first groomed in various product divisions at home. During this period, they not only develop their professional knowledge but also are socialized into the company, creating social net- works and cultivating relationships with their peers. Some of them would then be as-

signed to various local units and RHQs; others stay in the product divisions at home. Upon completion of overseas assignments, the expatriates return to the product divisions for which they used to work. As a result of this job rotation, managers at different loca- tions and levels, for example, RHQs, product divisions, or local units, often become members of informal information networks based on these established relationships. Such information networks form a critical basis on which a significant extent of control and coordination may be achieved. Though speculative, this network development outcome may be a reason why Japanese MNCs consistently are reported to use a higher proportion of expatriate managers in their overseas units than their American or European counter- parts. By supplementing formal communication channels with informal ones, MNCs can attain the concurrent goals of globalization and localization.

In document harveyi ORCIOO TESIS PRESENTA GUZMÁN Paz, B. (página 144-176)