Analytical derivation of the discriminability

The extracts from Ibn al-Qalānisi that follow give a vivid first-hand account of the fall of the Syrian coastal cities (Tripoli, Beirūt, Sidon, and later, Tyre), and of the effect on Islām’s spiritual capital of the influx of Frankish invaders into the empire. Muslim public opinion, alarmed by the tales of the Syrian refugees, demanded substantial military action by the central authorities; the Caliph and the Seljuqid Sultan, who, as usual, ‘promised to provide’.

THE FALL OF TRIPOLI (IBN AL-QALĀNISI, 163–4)

In sha‘bān of 502/March 1109 Bertrand,¹ the son of Saint-Gilles (who was attacking Tripoli) arrived by sea from his homeland with sixty vessels carrying Franks and Genoese, and encamped under the city walls. He was contesting the claims of Saint-Gilles’ nephew, the Count of Cerdagne. Tancred supported Cerdagne and Baldwin supported Bertrand.

Baldwin succeeded in making peace between them, and Cerdagne and his men returned to ‘Arqa. In a field there he encountered a Frank. He was about to kill him, but the Frank struck back and killed Cerdagne. When Bertrand was told he sent men to take over ‘Arqa from the dead man’s followers.

After this the Franks turned their full attention to Tripoli. They brought up all their troops to attack it and to press the inhabitants to surrender. This continued from the beginning of sha‘bān until 11 dhu l-hijja (6 March to 12 July 1109). They brought siege-towers against the walls, and when the inhabitants saw this display of force they lost heart and were sure that there was no hope for them. This state of mind led to despair when the Egyptian fleet was late in bringing supplies and reinforcements, delayed, by God’s will, by lack of provisions and contrary winds. The Franks pressed their advantage, stormed the ramparts and took the city by force on Monday 11 dhu l-hijja/12 July 1109. They sacked the city, captured the men and enslaved the women and children. They seized an immense quantity of loot and treasure as well as the contents of the city library,¹ works of art and heirlooms belonging to the local notables. The lives of the governor and his soldiers were spared.

They had in fact asked for safe-conduct out of the city before it was taken, and after its

1 Here and elsewhere the text has ‘Raymond’, confusing the son with his father, Raymond of Saint-Gilles. The father died in 1105, still vainly hoping to become Lord of Tripoli, and was succeeded by his cousin’s son, William-Jordan, Count of Cerdagne, until Bertrand arrived to contest his claim.

1 Dar al-‘ilm, literally ‘house of learning’, which was both a library and a college, and the pride of the Banu ‘Ammār, the amīrs of Tripoli. Jubáil, the ancient Byblos (the Gibelet of the Crusaders), had in fact already been taken by Saint-Gilles in 1104 (see above). The reference here must be to Jábala (Zibel), which lies north of Tripoli and south of Laodicea.

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capture they were allowed to go free. They soon arrived in Damascus, but the rest of the population was subjected to terrible ordeals and cruel tortures, its possessions confiscated and its hidden treasures dragged to light. The Franks and Genoese agreed each to take a third of the land and booty and to leave a third for Bertrand. As for Baldwin, they put aside from the total a share that would satisfy him.

After Tancred’s failure to achieve his aim by supporting Cerdagne he had turned back and laid siege to Baniyās, which made a treaty with him in shawwāl/May of the year 1109.

Then he attacked the city of Jubáil, where Fakhr al-Mulk ibn ‘Ammār (amīr of Tripoli) was staying. Supplies were very short and the citizens hard-pressed. On Friday 22 dhu l-hijja/

23 July 1109 they began negotiations with Tancred. He offered them their lives in exchange for the city, and they accepted his terms. Fakhr al-Mulk got away with his life and promises that he would be treated with respect and consideration by the Franks.

Soon after this the Egyptian fleet arrived. In manpower, number of vessels and quantity of equipment and stores it was larger than any that had ever sailed from an Egyptian port.

It brought enough men, money and supplies to keep Tripoli’s besiegers at bay for a year, as well as supplies for the rest of the Egyptian territories in Syria. The fleet reached Tyre eight days after the fall of Tripoli, by God’s will. So the supplies were unloaded at Tyre and distributed throughout the various regions, which was a help to the people of Tyre, Sidon and Beirūt, who had been complaining of their lack of resources and weakness in the face of Frankish aggression. But the fleet could delay no longer, and set sail with the next fair wind for Egypt.

THE FALL OF BEIRŪT (IBN AL-QALĀNISI, 167–8)

In this year (503/1109–10) Tancred and his minions swarmed out of Antioch and over the surrounding regions of Syria. They took Tarsus, imprisoned the governor and overran the district. After returning to Antioch they set out again for Shaizar, and demanded a tribute of 10,000 dinar, after devastating the province. Next they besieged Hisn al-Akrād, and when the garrison surrendered went on to ‘Aqra. Meanwhile Baldwin and Saint-Gilles’ son were blockading Beirūt by land and sea, and while Tancred was on his way back to Antioch Joscelin of Tall Bashīr went to Beirūt to strengthen Baldwin’s hand and to ask for his help against the amīr Mawdūd’s army, which was threatening Edessa. The Franks set to work to build a siege-tower to use against the walls of Beirūt, but as soon as it was finished and put into service the Muslims smashed it to pieces with stones flung from catapults. The Franks began to build another, and Saint-Gilles’ son undertook to provide a third.

At this moment twelve Egyptian men-of-war appeared, overwhelmed the Frankish fleet, capturing some of the ships, and brought provisions into Beirūt. This helped the inhabitants to recover their enthusiasm. Then Baldwin sent to Suwaidiyya¹ to ask for the help of the Genoese fleet there. Forty ship-loads of troops duly arrived at Beirūt, and the Franks mustered all their forces, on land and sea, for an assault on the city on Friday 21 shawwāl/13 May 1110. They brought up the two siege-towers and fought ferociously. In

1 The port of Antioch.

Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 17 the end the defenders lost heart, seeing no escape from certain death. In the evening the Franks made a breakthrough and forced their way into the city. The governor fled with a few companions, but they were brought back by the Franks, the whole party executed and the money they had with them confiscated. The city was sacked, the inhabitants captured and enslaved and their money and goods seized. A short time later a party of 300 cavalry arrived to assist the city. When they came to the Jordan they met a small band of Franks, turned tail and fled into the mountains, where many of them perished.

From Beirūt Baldwin led his army to besiege the city of Sidon, and forced the inhabitants to surrender. They begged him to defer the date set (for the payment of the tribute they owed him) and he agreed, after setting the sum at 6,000 dinar instead of the 2,000 that he had demanded before that. Then he returned to Jerusalem for the pilgrimage.

THE FALL OF SIDON (IBN AL-QALĀNISI, 171)

In this year (503/1109–10) news came of the arrival by sea of a Frankish King² with more than sixty ships full of pilgrims and soldiers for the war against Islām. They made for Jerusalem, and King Baldwin came out to meet them and to decide with them their plans for the invasion of the Muslim empire. From Jerusalem they went to besiege Sidon, and from 3 rabī‘ II (504/19 October 1110) they blockaded the city by land and sea. The Egyptian fleet was still at Tyre, but could not come to Sidon’s aid. The Franks spent several days building a siege-tower covered with brushwood, matting and fresh ox-hides, to repulse stones and Greek fire. They mounted the tower on wheels, and on the day of battle they provided it with weapons and water and vinegar to put out fires. Then they moved into attack with it.

The sight of it filled the people of Sidon with despair, for they feared a fate like that of Beirut. The qadi of the city and a group of elders came out and appeared before the Franks to ask Baldwin to spare their lives. He guaranteed the safety of the citizens and the army, as well as of their possessions, and promised that any who wanted to go to Damascus should be free to leave Sidon. Reassured by Baldwin’s oath the governor, the treasurer and all the armed forces of the city, as well as many of the citizens, left and went to Damascus. This was on 20 jumada I 504/4 December 1110, after a siege lasting forty-seven days. Baldwin restored the city to order, installed a garrison and then returned to Jerusalem. A short while later he returned to Sidon and imposed a tax of more than 20,000 dinar on the remaining Muslim inhabitants, taxing their last penny and reducing them to poverty. They used force to extort money from those they knew to be concealing some.

THE EFFECTS IN BAGHDĀD OF THE EVENTS IN SYRIA (IBN AL-QALĀNISI, 173)

In jumada II 5O4/November-December 1110 the Sultan Ghiyāth ad-Dunya wa d-Din Muhammad ibn Malikshāh travelled from Hamadhān to Baghdād. Messengers and messages

2 Sigurd I, King of Norway.

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reached him there from Syria reporting on the situation there, the movements of the Franks after their retreat from the Euphrates, and events in Sidon, Ātharib and the province of Aleppo. On the first Friday of sha‘bān a Hashimite Sharīf ¹ from Aleppo appeared in the Sultan’s mosque at Baghdād, with a group of sufis, merchants and lawyers, and began to beseech aid for Syria. They made the preacher come down from the pulpit and then smashed it to pieces. They wept and groaned for the disaster that had befallen Islām with the arrival of the Franks, for the men who had died and the women and children who had been sold into slavery. They made such a commotion that the people could not offer the obligatory prayers. To calm them, the servers and imāms promised, on the Caliph’s behalf, that troops would be sent to support Islām against the infidel. On the following Friday the men came back and repeated their noisy laments and cries for help, in the Caliph’s mosque. Not long after this the Sultan’s sister, who was the wife of the Caliph, arrived in Baghdād from Isfahān, bringing a train of endless and indescribable splendour: jewels, rich furnishings, horses and trappings, clothes and equipage, slaves and pages, handmaids and servants. The Sharīf’s cries for help disturbed the gaiety and joyousness of the occasion. The Caliph, the Prince of the Faithful al-Mustazhir bi-llāh, was extremely annoyed and wanted to arrest the offenders and punish them severely. But the Sultan intervened, pardoned the offenders and ordered the amīrs and army commanders to return to their posts and prepare to march in the Holy War against the infidel enemies of God.²

In jumada II/December 1110-January 1111 an ambassador arrived from the Byzantine Emperor³ with valuable gifts, and letters inviting the Muslims to unite with him to drive the Franks out of Syria. He called on them to rouse themselves and summon all their energies to strike before the damage was beyond repair and reached too serious proportions. He for his part had already tried by force to prevent the Frankish armies from passing through his lands into Islamic territory. But if their armies and reinforcements came pouring into the Muslim empire by the direct route, necessity would force him to treat with them and allow them to pass through his lands, and to help them to achieve their aims and objects.

He begged and prayed that all would unite to combat the Franks and would make common cause with him to extirpate them from these realms.

THE SIEGE OF TYRE (IBN AL-QALĀNISI, 178–81)

In this year (505/1111–12) Baldwin assembled the largest army he could muster and marched on Tyre. Its governor ‘Izzal-Mulk and the people of Tyre hurriedly wrote to the Ata-beg of Damascus, Zahīr ad-Din (Tughtikīn) asking for his help and offering to hand the city over to him. They begged him not to delay in sending a large contingent of his Turks

1 A true or presumed descendant of Muhammad; a privileged class that enjoyed great prestige among the Muslims.

2 Baghdād at this time contained two rulers: the ‘Abbasid Caliph, the nominal sovereign and leader of orthodox Islām, and the Seljuqid Sultan, the real ruler of Persia, Irāq and feudal lands in Syria.

Unity between the two, sometimes strengthened by marriage bonds, was not always perfect.

3 Alexius Comnenus (1081–1118).

Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 19 to their aid and assistance, for if help did not come soon they would be forced to hand the city over to the Franks, as they despaired of getting any help from al-Afdal in Egypt.¹ The Ata-beg responded at once and sent to Tyre a large contingent of Turks, fully equipped, and consisting of more than 200 cavalry and skilled archers. Voluntary foot-soldiers from the surrounding region, from Mount ‘Āmila and even from Damascus arrived at Tyre in large numbers, while the Ata-beg sent further reinforcements.

As for Baldwin, when he heard of the Ata-beg’s interest in Tyre he hastily surrounded the city with all the troops at his disposal. This was on 25 jumada I 505/29 November 1111.

He ordered his men to cut down all the trees and date-palms and to build permanent living-quarters under the city walls. Several vain attempts were made to take the city by storm. It was said that in one day’s fighting the citizens used 20,000 arrows.

When Zahīr ad-Din heard that the Franks had besieged Tyre he came down from Damascus as far as Baniyās and sent out flying columns and bands of foot-soldiers to raid the Frankish provinces, with licence to kill, pillage, burn, destroy, and in every way to create difficulties for the Franks and lure them away from the city while reinforcements were brought up. But the reinforcements failed to get into the city. Zahīr ad-Din went to attack the great fortress at al-Habīs, across the Jordan, took it after some fierce fighting and killed its garrison. Meanwhile the Franks had begun work on two wooden towers for use against the walls of Tyre. Time and again Zahīr ad-Din tried to hinder them by coming down to attack them, so that the garrison inside Tyre could come out and fire the towers; the Franks realized what he was trying to do, and dug trenches all round their position. They set guards over the trenches and the towers and were able to ignore his manoeuvres as well as his raids into their territories.

Winter came on, causing little harm to the Franks on the hard, sandy region where their camp was sited, but bringing much suffering to the Turkish army. None the less they continued their raids and their efforts to cut the Frankish supply lines and intercept their convoys. They cut the bridge on the road to Sidon to prevent reinforcements from arriving by that route. The Franks reverted to bringing in all their supplies by sea. When Zahīr ad-Din heard what they were doing he took a section of the army round to the north side of the city, over-running the area outside the city walls. A number of sailors were killed and about twenty ships fired where they lay drawn up on the shore. Meanwhile Tughtikīn did not omit to send letters to the people of Tyre encouraging them and urging them to keep up their resistance to the Frankish attacks.

In about eleven weeks the building of the two towers and their battering-rams was completed. On 10 sha‘bān/11 February the Franks brought them into use against the city walls, and battle raged around them. The smaller of the two was more than forty cubits high; the larger, more than fifty. On I ramadān/2 March the people of Tyre made a sortie and attacked the two towers with Greek fire, wood, pitch, and the means to set fire to them. They failed to set fire directly to either of their objectives, but they started a blaze near the smaller one in a place where the Franks could not extinguish it, and the wind blew it on to the tower.

In spite of the fierce struggle put up by the men inside the tower, it burnt down. The Muslims

1 The Fatimid vizier, mentioned above, who should have been the first to come to the aid of these coastal towns, which were all nominally Egyptian.

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took a lot of booty from it: cuirasses, shields and other things, and then the fire caught the other tower. When the Muslims realized that the Franks, occupied with fighting the fire in the towers, had given up their attack on the walls, they too let the attack from the ramparts drop. Then the Franks turned on them, drove them back from the towers, extinguished the fires, and set a large detachment of picked guards to protect the towers and the catapults.

Until the end of ramadān the Franks kept up their attack on the city. They brought one of the towers up close to the wall, filling in the three trenches in front of it. The Muslims broke through the wall at the point where the Frankish. tower faced it and started a fire there. The props caught fire, the wall fell down in front of the tower, and it was no longer possible to bring the tower up close under the wall and assault the city from there. The wall where they had attacked it was quickly repaired, while the towers to either side of it dominated it and prevented the mobile tower from getting any closer on that side. So the Franks cleared away the accumulation of rubble and dragged the tower up to another part of the city wall, which they began to batter with rams slung in the tower. The wall cracked, stones fell out

Until the end of ramadān the Franks kept up their attack on the city. They brought one of the towers up close to the wall, filling in the three trenches in front of it. The Muslims broke through the wall at the point where the Frankish. tower faced it and started a fire there. The props caught fire, the wall fell down in front of the tower, and it was no longer possible to bring the tower up close under the wall and assault the city from there. The wall where they had attacked it was quickly repaired, while the towers to either side of it dominated it and prevented the mobile tower from getting any closer on that side. So the Franks cleared away the accumulation of rubble and dragged the tower up to another part of the city wall, which they began to batter with rams slung in the tower. The wall cracked, stones fell out