Androcentrismo oculto

The psychological pressures of trying to adapt to the new culture are likely to result in the experience of negative emotions (Zhang, 2012). International students and their adaptation issues attracted a number of studies at the end of the 1950s, related to psychological and social problems the students encountered (Bobo & Fox, 2003). It was advocated that many of these issues were caused by migration experiences due to a lack of social support networks, the differences in values, and other negative life events (Zhou, Jindal‐Snape, Topping, & Todman, 2008); this was regarded by many as the impact of culture shock, or the problem in trying to adjust to a completely different way of life. However, by the 1980s there were new perspectives being presented, namely that any problems relating to being exposed to a different culture could actually be managed and improved through orientation programmes

(Zhou et al., 2008). Such orientation programmes were proposed as a way of helping international students naturally settle into their new cultural environment and UKCISA (2008) gave guidance for universities on providing events to inform new students and direct them to support where needed. In addition, it was suggested that individuals needed to improve coping strategies to deal with the strain of life in a different environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Various theories on adjustment have been proposed including the U curve, which suggests that a sojourner is initially excited about the new culture, then starts to suffer from culture shock, and finally reaches a point of cultural acceptance and adaptation (Oberg, 1960).

The adjustment steps utilized for learning is a suitable approach during a student’s learning journey (Lewthwaite, 1996), whereas Anderson (1994) suggests individuals need to find a solution to overcome any obstacles they may encounter when trying to adapt. Berry, Kim, Minde, and Mok (1989) argue that individuals may maintain their own cultural identity, and choose to either engage with or avoid the host culture, or they may value the host culture to the exclusion of their own culture; finally they may value neither their own nor the host culture. These strategies may affect the level of stress affecting an individual’s adaptation process (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999), but it is clear that there are a various theories which may apply to different individuals, as all international students react in different ways to specific stressors and tend to use a wide variety of plans to help them deal with their stress (Wang, 2009). In the next chapter, some of the relevant theoretical models will be discussed.

Previous qualitative studies have focused on themes arising from quantitative studies, such as loneliness (Sawir, Marginson, Deumert, Nyland, and Ramia, 2008), feelings of being discriminated against (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007), mismatched expectations (Major, 2005), facing emotionally challenging issues (McLachlan & Justice, 2009), and absence of advice (Ang & Liamputting, 2008). It was found that cross cultural interaction could be successful in supporting adjustment in international students (Ujitani & Violet, 2008). However, a qualitative study conducted in Australia presented students’ personal stories on strategies they found effective in helping them overcome the challenges associated with adaptation (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011). Suggestions from these students included preparing before departure so that future students were fully aware of their new environment and had a good command of English; they also advised on developing a more independent lifestyle and to ensure efforts were made for digital contacts in both countries, especially for building social

networks (Khawaja & Stallman, 2001). This is similar to previous findings where social networks are regarded as essential for adaptation (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004; Surdam & Collins, 1984; Ujitani & Violet, 2008). Yet international students reported that one of the best ways they had of managing any stress was by having contact with people from their own background, as they could share their experiences and issues with others who could empathise and understand (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011).

One other factor of relevance which presents itself as vitally associated with coping, is seen as distance between cultures, namely the distance seen between the host culture and the culture of origin (Babiker, Cox, & Miller, 1980). It has been found that where there is a substantial distance between these cultures, then the more difficult it was for students to adapt (Rosenthal, Russell, & Thomson, 2007; Suanet & Van de Vijver, 2009), this could be a predictor for acculturative stress (Yeh & Inose, 2003). Alternatively, a cultural or ethnic similarity resulted in better socio-cultural adjustment in international students (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). In addition, perceived cultural distance can lower the amount of social relationship building with people from the new nation (Epstein & Heizler, 2014). However, it must also be acknowledged that some other works may not find any such association between both cultural distance and the adjustment needed (Hemmasi & Downes, 2013). Nevertheless, it was found that going from an individualistic society to a collectivist society did result in better adjustment than going the other way round (Hemmasi & Downes, 2013). It may be that those from a collectivist society need to feel that they still belong to a group and, when moving countries, the support of that group is no longer there. This implies that international students from a collectivist culture, such as the Arabian countries, may find it more difficult to adjust when they arrive in a country such as the UK.

It is expected that students in higher education will develop independent skills and become more original in their thought processes. This might suggest a completely opposite view regarding expectations from students who come from structured, authoritarian backgrounds. Students may believe they are not being taught properly as they are not being given enough information from the teachers, but expected to find it out for themselves. This may put them in conflict with the new culture and may have a considerable impact on an international student’s overall confidence of being able to adjust (Zhou et al., 2008).

and social companionship (Cohen & Wills, 1985). A number of studies have found a interlinking co-operation between the social support and coping strategy (Yusoff & Chelliah, 2010) and, within a study conducted with first year international students, Ramsay, Jones, and Barker. (2007) found that the more support students had, the better their adjustment. Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, and Al‐Timimi (2004) also found that students receiving a high level of social support normally had lower levels of acculturative stress. Nevertheless, in their study Ward and Kennedy (2001) did not point out relevant matches between social support and coping. There may be more underlying factors that impact on this factor, for example, the particular kind of social support that is provided, or some specific issues that students encounter. Alternatively, it may be that there is an association with culture that has an influence, as some cultures may accept social support more easily than others. This is therefore an area where more exploration could take place, as it appears that a number of situational and individual factors may need to be taken into account.