Anexo 2: Resultados del cuestionario inicial

The debate on employability skills has been driven by individuals and employer groups, in order to highlight employers’ responses about employability skills and the goals that need to be achieved by the education and training systems in transferring employability skills. The need exists for education and business to work together more productively and to learn from one another in this process of equipping the youth with employable skills (Curtis & McKenzie, 2001:vii).

There is a wide range of terms used synonymously to denote employability skills. Concepts such as ‘employability skills’, ‘key or core skills’, ‘transferable skills’ and ‘personal skills’

express similar basic abilities, although they are used in different contexts (Kearns, 2001a:84). In New Zealand, employability skills are referred to as ‘essential skills’, while they are known as ‘core skills’ in the United Kingdom, and in Australia they are called ‘key competencies’ (Ramsey, 1997:25). Table 2.1 gives an indication of the international application of terminologies relating to employability skills used in various countries.

According to Curtis and Mckenzie (2001:vii), there is a lack of common understanding that is reflected in the language being used in different circles and forums regarding employability skills. Curtis and Mckenzie further argue that “adjectives such as core, key, generic and essential are variably used to preface nouns such as skills, competencies, capabilities and attributes”. Kearns (2001a:85) posits that it would be desirable for an agreement to be reached on a common terminology for employability skills among stakeholders such as schools, vocational education and training, higher education, employers, individuals and communities.

TABLE 2.1 Concepts used for employability skills

Country Framework

Australia Key competencies

New Zealand Essential skills

United States of America Basic skills, necessary skills, workplace know-how

United Kingdom Core skills, key skills, common skills

Australia Key competencies, employability skills, generic skills

Canada Employability skills

Singapore Critical enabling skills training (CREST)

France Transferable skills

Germany Key qualifications

Switzerland Trans-disciplinary goals

Denmark Process independent qualifications

Source: National Centre for Vocational Education Research (2003:2)

It is evident that various countries, as reflected above, have identified specific employment- related generic skills, while others have placed emphasis on qualification frameworks and assessment approaches. These variations do not only reveal the use of parallel concepts, but also the fact that matching concepts are given different meanings in different national contexts (Kamarainen, 2002:25).

The literature consulted indicates that definitions of life, key or core skills, transferable skills and personal skills describe similar basic abilities, even although there are slight differences in terminology and emphasis. The emphasis is on non-technical skills that help individuals to enrich life in a meaningful way. Onstenk and Brown (2002:89) observe that core skills are considered entry-level skills for employment, which are “fundamental to many tasks and a whole range of occupations and to ground specific occupational skills”.

In the context of this study, the term ‘employability skills’ is used to delineate the concept from other terms and to clarify the purpose of this study, namely to identify the employability skills required in the workplace.

2.2.1 Definition of employability skills

There has been growing consensus among researchers over the importance of employability skills in the workplace (Atkins, 1999:267; Butterwick & Benjamin, 2006:76; Lange & Gibbons-Wood, 2000:24; Payne, 2000:353; Robinson, 2000:1; Stasz, 2001:385)

The term ‘employability skills’ is used synonymously with concepts such as ‘soft skills’, ‘key skills’, ‘key competencies’, ‘core competencies’, ‘transferable skills’ and ‘personal skills’ to describe the skills underpinning competent performance in an occupation (Lange & Gibbons- Wood, 2000:24). Key developments in defining employability skills in the United Kingdom were similar to those in Australia. Initially, they were called ‘core skills’ and following their revision, ‘key skills’. Employers in Australia have since added other skills and now refer to such skills as ‘employability skills’ (National Centre for Vocational Education Research, 2003:6). In the United Kingdom, key skills are defined as those skills relevant to a person’s learning, career and personal life, with a strong emphasis on the application of such skills to employability.

The Australian Education Council Mayer Committee (1992:7) defines key competencies as “competencies essential for effective participation in emerging patterns of work and work organisations. They focus on the capacity to apply knowledge and skills in an integrated way in work situations”. In this definition, emphasis is placed on those cognitive abilities essential for workers to be effective in the workplace due to the re-organisation of work processes.

The Australian Education Council Mayer Committee (1992:7) further asserts the following: Key competencies are generic in that they apply to work generally rather than being specific to work in particular occupations or industries. These characteristics mean that key competencies are not only essential for participation in work, but are also essential for effective participation in further education and in adult life more generally. The emphasis of the above definition refer to abilities that relate both to work specifically and non-specifically to any given occupational discipline. Such abilities could just as well be used in other life contexts.

According to the Australian Government (2006b:8), employability skills are “non-technical skills and competencies which play a significant part in contributing to an individual’s effectiveness and successful participation in the workplace”. Greatbatch, Murphy, Wilmut, Macintosh and Tolley (2004:8) define employability skills as “transferable skills independent of the occupational sectors and organisation in which individuals work and [which] are perceived to contribute to an individual’s overall employability by enhancing their capacity to adapt, learn and work independently”. In support of the above, De Grip et. al (2004:214) put it that “transferable skills include social and relational skills that are not only important in obtaining a job, but also in keeping it and, eventually in moving on to the next job”.

A narrow definition of employability skills presented by Fallows and Steven (2000:75) is that these are skills that enhance students’ employment prospects. Employability skills are defined by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia (2002:2–3) as “skills required not only to gain employment, but also to progress within an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potential and contribute successfully to enterprise strategic directions”. Cassidy (2006:508) is of the view that, because of the their relevance to professional functioning, non-technical skills are commonly referred to as employability skills, and include basic skills such as oral communication;, reading, writing and arithmetic;, higher-order thinking skills such as learning skills and strategies;, problem-solvingsolving, decision-making and affective skills;, and traits such as dependability and responsibility, positive attitude, interpersonal skills, teamwork, self-discipline, self-management and the ability to work without supervision.

The researcher sees employability skills as the skills required by industry that are not restricted to a given occupation and which make it easier to transition from school to work and which increase employment opportunities for high school graduates. The researcher is

of the view that, without employability skills, a person would find it difficult to cope in a changing work environment and would also have difficulties in retaining his or her job; thus increasing the unemployment prospects of such person.

2.2.2 Values, attitudes and motivation

Kearns (2001a:46) recognises the relevance of values, attitudes and motivation to economic success in the knowledge-based economy. Quisumbing (2001:3) points out the important role that vocational education and training should play in the provision of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and ways of life needed to promote a culture of peace and democracy. Values, attitudes and motivation are considered just as relevant in a workplace as employability skills, because they are also in demand by employers (Dawe, 2002:70). Curtis and McKenzie (2001:41) assert that “values, attitudes and motivation are those personal and interpersonal attributes that are described in some schemes as soft skills”. Curtis and McKenzie further identify the following personal attributes: “self-esteem, ethics, integrity and honesty, self-management, resourcefulness, initiative and accepting feedback”. In Table 2.2, Turner (2002:58) lists attributes, skills and behaviours which are essential for the development of an entrepreneurial workforce.

TABLE 2.2 Attributes, skills and behaviours essential to an entrepreneurial workforce Attributes • self-confident • autonomous • achievement- oriented • versatile • dynamic • resourceful Skills • problem solving • creativity • persuasiveness • planning • negotiating • decision-making Behaviours • acting independently

• actively seeking to achieve goals

• flexibility in responding to challenges

• coping with and enjoying uncertainty

• taking risky actions in uncertain environments

• persuading others

• commitment to making things happen

• opportunity-seeking

• solving problems/conflict creatively

Source: Turner (2002:58)

‘Attributes’ is a term that refers to the “qualities or characteristics” inherent in a person or thing and comprises traits such as being self-confident, resourceful and versatile. ‘Skill’ is a

word that can be associated with an ability that has been acquired through training, and this could consist of skills such as problem solving, negotiating or planning. While behaviour is seen as an action or reaction to something, which could consist of acting independently, taking risky actions in uncertain environments or persuading others. The researcher found it useful for workers to demonstrate the above character traits to enable them to interact with peers in a workplace in the execution of their tasks and responsibilities.

Values, attitudes and motivation are described by the researcher as those universally accepted norms which include compassion, courage, courtesy, fairness, honesty, kindness, loyalty, perseverance, truthfulness, respect and responsibility. Vocational education and training programmes should aim at developing cognitive, affective and personal behaviours towards the holistic development of a person. Dawe (2002:70) is of the view that employers prefer to teach values, attitudes and personal attributes specific to their industry needs. However, teachers should be aware of values, attitudes and personal attributes needed by industry to assist students who are unemployed or who wish to be engaged in self-employed activities. Such an approach could result in the development of values and attitudes such as creativity and adaptability, productivity, quality and efficiency, patience and perseverance, loyalty and commitment, freedom and responsibility, accountability, a spirit of service, a future orientation and a genuine love for work (Quisumbing, 2001:3).

The emergence of globalisation has altered the nature of the workplace and has simultaneously affected the VET sector. It would therefore be required from the VET system to respond to the changing skills demands of the workplace.