Motivational research in education has a long and rich history (see section 3.1), and the body of literature investigating motivational factors effecting learning in online environments is growing. Astleitner’s (2003) general review limited explicitly to web- based learning examined its influences on learning mentions four notable studies concerning motivation in online learning environments relating to self-regulated and active learning (Boekarts, 1997); application of Keller’s ARCS model (Chyung, Winiecki & Fenner, 1998; Visser, 1998); influence of Artificial Intelligence software on motivation (Thaiupathump, Bourne & Campbell, 1999). Kawachi (2003) offers a review that provides an overview of ways in which four motivations (academic, vocational, social and personal) are initiated within instruction offered in open and distant learning
17 The program of research presented in this dissertation involves an intervention occurring at the course
environments that is very insightful, especially in terms of his sensitivity to international issues within the fields of motivational research and online learning.
In more recent studies, Keller and Suzuki (2004) validate the ARCS developed by Keller as an effective means of influencing learner motivation by using a systematic approach to the design of online instruction; Martens, Gulikers and Bastiens (2004) examine the impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in authentic computer tasks, and find that high levels of intrinsic motivation are indicative not of higher levels of achievement, but rather of different learning activities, especially exploratory behaviour. In a recent article by Hedberg (2006) examining the potential future of e- learning, an innovative approach to increasing motivation in online environments is presented that operates on the concept of increased engagement. Hedberg describes the recent theory developed by Susan Metros (2003) and its premise that engagement with learning increases in online environments when students move through the process of transferring, translating and transcending ideas (see Table 6.1).
Table 6.1. Matching pedagogies with motivation (Metros, 2003)
Engagement
Level Passive Interest Dynamic Interaction Flow-state eLearning
Motivation Transfer Translate Transcend
Applications online syllabus online lecture notes presentations web resources web quests blogs smart tutoring remote instrumentation (remote data collection via web)
course website
E-reserves learning communities rich media databases Immersive 3D graphic environments (eg. Quest Atlantis) learning objects multimedia presentations dynamic knowledge collection management self-paced tutorials federated & harvested
searches
interactive e-texts
interactive simulations/ applets
Learning
Outcomes computer literacy collaboration advance sensory input/ output
comprehension cooperation redefined teacher/
student relationships
convenience &
accessibility critical thinking realistic research solutions time management problem solving life-long learning convenient access to
information teamwork reflective assignments
community building alternative learning strategies
information analysis contextual learning
access to targeted information
(taken from Hedberg, 2006, p.181)
The concepts put forward by Metros in Table 6.1 can be seen as a design framework for online learning environment that provides students meaningful interactive opportunities with knowledge – engagement (as engagement increases, so to does motivation). Environments that simply transfer conventional educational practices
lower levels of student engagement than those that are able to translate (redefine and shift) conventional methods, which again result in lower engagement than transcending
environments (go beyond conventional methods creating new paradigms for teaching and learning). According to Hedberg (and Metros), current forms of online learning are still trapped in the confining methodology of transfer and calls for movement toward environments of transcending motivation (echoes developments in constructivist learning theory) offering multimodal views, requiring a range of literacies, and the use of a variety of tools for knowledge construction and communication.
The key aspect that can be gained from the body of literature dealing with student motivation in online learning environments is that it is possible to consider the individual needs and characteristics in the design of online learning environments providing opportunities for increased motivation to learn (Keller & Suzuki, 2004). Due to the early stages of motivational research in online environments, more research is necessary that addresses motivational factors, which substantiates the efforts of this current project of research examining changing levels of motivation in students participating in blended learning environments.
6.1.2
Relationship Between FTP and Goal Orientation
Goal orientation has been observed to have significant influence on intrinsic motivation and graded performance in academic setting. The research conducted by Elliot and Church (1997) dealt with a comprehensive model of what they determined were antecedents and consequences of goal orientation – their intent was to identify constructs leading to and predicting the adoption of goal orientation, as well as the consequences or outcomes of such adoption on student motivation and performance. According to their results, they found that achievement motive, competence expectancy
and fear of failure influenced goal adoption (most significantly was competence expectancy), therefore these factors were labelled as antecedents to goal orientation. This current study proposes an additional antecedent, namely FTP. Based on the findings in previous literature dealing with the relationship of FTP to motivation and goal orientation, this is a valid and feasible assumption. This study also includes motivational beliefs and SRL variables as constructs that interrelate with goal orientation before the final consequence or outcome phase. Consequently, they can be viewed as operations of goal orientation.
Time Perspective Goal Orientation Motivational Beliefs SRL & Learning Strategies Achievement
Antecedent Operations Outcome
Figure 6.1. Antecedents, operations, and outcomes of goal orientation
In summary, this current study presents an expanded picture of the interrelationships between FTP, goal orientation, motivational beliefs, SRL and student achievement (graded performance).
6.1.3
Promoting Self-Regulation
Research examining aspects of self-regulated learning (SRL), including self- direction, control, and use of learning strategies is similar to the small yet developing literature on motivational factors. However, SRL studies often incorporate motivational factors (self-efficacy, goal orientation, etc.) since research dealing with student achievement examines multiple influences and impacts (Lynch & Dembo, 2004). Very few reviews exist that deal specifically with self-regulated learning in online
instruction (instead of just pure online environments) in an attempt to offer a review of more breadth. His review presents nine studies in total exploring topics ranging from learner control (and the apparent lack of strategies displayed by students indicating a need for training in self-regulatory strategy use – see Azevedo & Cromley, 2004), to subsets of strategies identified in the research by Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1988) that have been well researched in traditional environments.
The transfer of SRL concepts into online environments does seem to raise problematic issues, according to literature. Similar categories of strategies are examined (monitoring, self-evaluating, planning, metacognitive self-regulation, management of time and environment). Lynch and Dembo (2004) also present a detailed review of studies dealing with these specific strategy categories from a perspective of web-based distance education. They summarize their findings with a description of the most important self-regulatory attributes for the online learner: motivation, experience with Internet technology, time management skills, study environment management skills, and help seeking (assistance management).
What is interesting in these studies is how online students adapt strategies to the “new” learning environment (Whipp & Chiarelli, 2004). However, this is also expressed in the traditional literature dealing with SRL – the conceptualisation of SRL as an aptitude (resulting in self-report surveys and questionnaires) or as an event (requiring new methods of evaluation; see Winne and Nesbit, 2003).
This current program of research continues in the tradition of examining SRL as an aptitude (Zimmerman, 1989; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990), adding to the literature by examining students in a blended learning environment. Specific strategies regarding students’ propensity for metacognitive self-regulation; time, effort and environment
management; and help seeking will be examined in relationship to motivational factors and achievement outcomes.
7
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The focus of this current program of research is on exploring the relationship of future orientation to motivational beliefs, self-regulation and student achievement through an instructional intervention. Since there have been very few studies, if any, dealing with instructional interventions using future orientation, this current research provides valuable insights to the field of literature dealing with future time perspective and learning.
7.1
Research Questions
As stated in chapter 1, there are two main research questions that are examined in this research:
RQ 1 Is it possible to illicit a change in student future orientation and FTP through instruction?
RQ 2 How does change in future orientation and FTP affect student goal orientation, motivational beliefs, SRL, and achievement?