ANEXOS

Mathieson and Wall (1982), as well as Dogan (1989), identified socio-cultural impacts as

‘people impacts’ in their early studies. They explained that the social and cultural impacts of tourism contribute to find ways in which tourism changes daily routines, social lives, value systems, individual behaviour, family relationships and life styles. The social-cultural impacts of tourism were also mentioned by Kala (2008), which refer to changes in the quality of local residents’ lives and the cultural environment. Early in 1984, Pizam and Milman identified six major categories of social-cultural impacts: “… impacts on population structure, transformation of forms and types of occupations, transformation of values, influence on traditional lifestyle, modification of consumption patterns and benefits to tourists (p.11).”

When compared to economic impacts, it is often more difficult for researchers to measure socio-cultural impacts. Thomason et al., (1979) asserted that to measure the nature of social impacts is not easy, because it always changes through time. Thus, they called for the need to monitor impacts rather to rely on single assessments at a given time. Normally, to assess tourism impacts on socio-cultural aspects, it was common to investigated local residents’

attitudes towards the industry and the effects which tourism was having on their daily life (Lawson, Williams, Young & Cossens, 1998, Ap & Crompton, 1998). Thus, the main purpose of analysing social-cultural tourism impact is to provide researchers, planners, officials, and local authorities with rich data on host community attitudes towards tourism development, which could be used to maximise the positive impacts while minimising the negative impacts, thereby leading to more sustainable tourism (Ratz, 2002).

From a social perspective, positive impacts included, for example, an increase in recreational facilities, endorsing and strengthening community pride, revitalizing poor or non-industrialized regions, resurrecting local arts and crafts, improving public transport infrastructure, reviving the social life of the local population, renewing local architectural traditions, improving the image of the host community, and promoting the need to conserve areas of outstanding beauty that have cultural value (Mason, 1995; Williams & Lawson 2001 ;Ap, 1992; Weaver & Lawson, 2001). However, Liu, Sheldon & Var (1987), and Tosun, (2002) argued that the social impacts may not always be positive. Negative social impacts from tourism could be related to increased traffic congestion, overcrowding in destinations, increases in crime, pollution, low wages, seasonal employment, and social conflicts, and

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finally a decline in traditions (Mason, 2008, Backman & Backman, 1997, Dogan, 1989). On top of listing such significant social impacts, some researchers provided detailed case studies illustrating such impacts on host communities. For instance, by conducting a case study of the Sunshine Coast, Sharma and Dyer (2009) found that the negative social impacts may include traffic congestion, pressure on local services, and high prices for real estate as well as noise and pollution. Chazapi and Sdrali (2006) found that residents on Andros Island, Greece, expressed high levels of agreement on positive social impact, such as improving the socio-economic life status for women, but felt that would bring issues pertaining to safety and crime. Moreover, because of tourism, human relationships tended to be commercialized as non-economic considerations became less valued (Dogan, 1989). Kala (2008) investigated tourism’s impacts in India, and found that 78.7 % respondents were proud to have visitors in their region; but 80% of respondents mentioned congestion and the overcrowding of infrastructure as a major social problem. Another important finding has related to the role of women. Ekrem et al., (2002) found that the impacts of tourism on women were considered to be positive because the industry provided more opportunities to directly earn and retain money, which made them more confident and increased their family status. However, some researchers also argued that tourism will distort traditional family structures, leading to increases in divorce rates and possibly prostitution (Gee, Makens & Choy, 1997).

From a cultural perspective, tourism development and the interaction of tourist and local residents could cause a series of changes with regard to culture in the host community.

Tourists from different cultures interacting with hosts may improve mutual understanding and create better images of different communities and cultures; however, those cultural exchanges may have an effect on the host community (Brayley, Var & Sheldon, 1990). This could be evidenced by ‘Acculturation theory’, which suggests that when two or more cultures come into contact for a certain time, then an exchange of cultural features will occur. The original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, and the groups remain distinct, but the stronger culture might ‘take over’ the weaker one (Murphy, 1991; Kottak, 2007). Some significant cultural impacts may include: contribution to the revitalization of traditional arts, crafts, and heritage; change local residents’ values, and lifestyles including modes of dress, eating, and recreational activities (Chen & Chiang, 2005; Liu and Var, 1986).

On the other hand tourism has helped to maintain historical celebrations, festivals and religious ceremonies (Lanfant, 1980). Nonetheless there remains a view that tourism can result in a misunderstanding and transformation of local culture. For example, Ap and

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Crompton (1998) stated that the host community’s cultural features may erode over time, because some residents, especially younger residents, may identify with the tourists’ cultural values and wish to have the same items defined as luxuries by the value systems of other cultures. For instance, Kala (2008) noted that first, many Indian tourists scratched walls and inscribed their names on them, leading to that behaviour being imitated by local youth; and second, local cultural traditions become commercialised. The impacts above are more or less related to the ‘Demonstration effect’, which is primarily discussed in the context of social-cultural impacts. Williams (1998) pointed out that in the demonstration effect simply observing tourists will lead to behavioural changes in the host community, especially where the contacts between residents and visitors are relatively superficial and short lived. Fisher (2004) argued that the demonstration effect can cause local residents to copy visitors’

behaviours (e.g. consumption pattern, dress code, lifestyles, cultural changes, etc.). For instance, Mason (2008) reported that under demonstration effect, “local residents will note the superior material possessions of the visitors and aspire to these, which will encourage residents to adopt more productive patterns of behaviour” (p.59).

For his part, Ryan (2002) has commented that such imitation can only occur if residents perceive some value for themselves in the behaviours of the tourists. People do not copy unless some advantage is thought to exist, whether in terms of prestige, status or economic gain. Residents, he argues, are not blank pieces of blotting paper simply waiting to absorb a change derived from outside influences, and in many instances, such changed behaviours do not exactly replicate the observed behaviour. Rather a new hybrid behavioural pattern emerges whereby local people shape a given behaviour into something that bestows benefit on themselves. In a series of studies of tourism impacts on Chinese rural life he, in association with different colleagues, has observed differential patterns of response, even to the point of querying whether a meta-narrative is possible (Ryan, Zhang, & Deng, 2011).

Indeed, social-culture impact is a complex concept, and difficult to assess within short periods of time. Although social-culture impact in various destinations has been much examined, there still exists a large gap in this field research; especially a lack of longitudinal ethnographic approach. In response to this gap, for the current research project, the author spent nearly 7 months in the research area to personally experience how tourism influences a local destination’s social and culture society. It should also be noted that this was the second such visit, the first being made approximately 12 months prior to the current study. The

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following table summarises social-cultural impacts from both positive and negative perspectives as described in the extant literature.

Table 2.3 Positive socio-cultural impact of tourism summary Positive

Ap & Crompton, 1998; Liu, Sheldon

& Var, 1987; Besculides, Lee and McCormick (2002); Siriporn

&Youngsoo , 2010; Esman, 1984;

Cave, 2003; Besculides, Lee &

McCormick, 2002; Su & Teo, 2008;

Belisle & Hoy, 1980, ; Liu, Sheldon

& Var, 1987; Williams & Lawson

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