So far this chapter has described the development of the simple bailer test and shown its effectiveness. However, the analysis of the test is still a little more complex than desired, requiring either the use of nomograms (Barker & Herbert 1989) or a computer (BGSPT). By making several generalisations and undertaking a little more modelling it is possible to simplify the analysis. As described in the introduction to this chapter, the need for pumping tests in rural water supply boreholes in Africa is to answer the question “can this borehole sustain a handpump ?” A rule of thumb for the bailer test answers this question: yes, no or maybe.
Figure 6.9 shows transmissivity and storage values that produce an acceptable drawdown at the peak of the dry season for a borehole supplying 250 people. These aquifer properties can be used to simulate expected drawdown and recovery rates from a bailer test. If the maximum drawdown in a bailer test is significantly greater, and the recovery rate slower, than that simulated for these minimum aquifer properties, then it can be assumed that the borehole will not sustain a handpump. Conversely, if the maximum drawdown is significantly less, and the recovery more rapid, then the borehole will sustain a handpump.
A new b a iler test fo r use in rural w a ter supply p ro jects 12 □ 4-inch 10 • 5-inch O 6-inch 8 X 8-inch 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 Tim e s i n c e start p u m p in g (m in s)
Figure 6.11 Drawdown and recovery for bailer test in boreholes with diameter 4 inch, 5 inch, 6 inch and 8 inch. Q = 2 5 m \d tp = 10 minutes, S = 0.001 and T= 0.85 m^d '. Using drawdown and recovery rates (rather than transmissivity) to give guidelines on borehole success adds another layer of uncertainty to the interpretation. Borehole radius and pumping rate also affect drawdown and recovery. Obviously the abstraction rate affects drawdown, but the effect of borehole radius is not so clear. The simulations in section 6.7.2 showed that borehole radius had a negligible impact on drawdown over 6 months. However, the influence of borehole storage causes the radius to have a much greater influence on drawdown and recovery for the short time period of the bailer test (Figure 6.11). Therefore to have effective guidelines for borehole success, the borehole radius and abstraction rate must be accounted for.
Drawdown and recovery curves were simulated for various borehole diameters and pumping rates with aquifer parameters which should be sufficient to sustain a handpump throughout a six month dry season. The length of the test was fixed as 10 minutes. Maximum drawdown, and the time for 25%, 50% and 75% recovery were recorded in Table 6.2. In all cases 25% recovery occurs very quickly and is not particularly diagnostic, particularly if water-level measurements are only taken every half minute. Maximum drawdown, 50% and 75% recovery, however, are easily measured within one hour and diagnostic of aquifer conditions.
A n ew b a ile r test f o r use in ru ral w a te r su pply p ro je c ts
Table 6.2 Maximum drawdown and recovery times (in minutes) for a 10-minute bailer test undertaken in various diameter boreholes at different pumping rates (simulated using BGSPT). 10 high* S low** S 1 5 m \ d ' high* S low** S 2 0 m \ d high* S 1 low** 2 5 m ^ d S high* S 1 low** S 3 0 m \ d high* S low** 4 in c h Max drawdown (m ) 4.1 5.0 6.1 7 .6 8.1 10.1 1 0.2 1 2 .6 1 2.2 15.1 25% recovery (m ins) 2 .2 2 .8 2 .2 2 .8 2 .2 2 .8 2 .2 2 .8 2 .2 2 .8 50% recovery (m ins) 5 .9 7 .0 5 .9 7 .0 5 .9 7 .0 5 .9 7 .0 5 .9 7 .0 75% recovery (m ins) 1 4 .4 15.1 14 .4 15.1 1 4 .4 15.1 1 4 .4 15.1 1 4 .4 15.1 5 in c h Max drawdown (m ) 3.2 3 .8 4 .7 5 .7 6 .3 7 .6 7 .9 9 .5 9 .5 1 1.4 25% recovery (m ins) 3.1 4.1 3.1 4.1 3.1 4.1 3.1 4.1 3.1 4.1 50% recovery (m ins) 8 .6 1 0 .5 8 .6 1 0 .5 8 .6 1 0.5 8 .6 10 .5 8 .6 1 0 .5 75% recovery (m ins) 2 0 .9 1 2 .8 2 0 .9 12 .8 2 0 .9 1 2 .8 2 0 .9 12 .8 2 0 .9 1 2 .8 6 in c h Max drawdown (m ) 2 .5 2 .9 3 .7 4 .4 5 .0 5 .8 6 .2 7 .3 7 .4 8 .7 25% recovery (m ins) 4 .2 5 .8 4 .2 5 .8 4 .2 5 .8 4 .2 5 .8 4 .2 5 .8 50% recovery (m ins) 1 1.7 1 4 .8 1 1 .7 1 4 .8 1 1 .7 1 4 .8 1 1 .7 1 4 .8 1 1 .7 1 4 .8 75% recovery (m ins) 2 8 .3 3 2 .2 2 8 .3 3 2 .2 2 8 .3 3 2 .2 2 8 .3 3 2 .2 2 8 .3 3 2 .2 8 in c h Max drawdown (m ) 1.6 1.8 2 .4 2 .7 3 .2 3 .6 4 .0 4. 4 .8 2 5 .5 25% recovery (m ins) 6 .9 1 0.0 6 .9 1 0 .0 6 .9 1 0 .0 6 .9 1 0 .0 6 .9 1 0 .0 50% recovery (m ins) 19.2 2 5 .6 19.2 2 5 .6 1 9 .2 2 5 .6 1 9.2 2 5 .6 1 9.2 2 5 .6 75% recovery (m ins) 4 6 .8 5 5 .9 4 6 .8 5 5 .9 4 6 .8 5 5 .9 4 6 .8 5 5 .9 4 6 .8 5 5 .9
‘ high S is for aquifer p aram eters T = 0 .8 5 m^.d ’ and S = 0.01 “ low S is for aquifer p aram eters T = 1 .3 5 m^.d’’ and S = 0 .0 0 0 0 1
Table 6.3 Guidelines for success of rural water supply boreholes using the 10-minute bailer test. 10 ISm '.d"" 2 0 m\d"" 2 5 m \d ^ 3 0 m ’.d '
(N um ber of standard b ails)‘ (16) (24) (32) (40) (48)
4 in c h Max drawdown (m) 3 .5 5 .3 7.1 8 .8 1 0 .6
tim e for 50% recovery (m ins) 6 6 6 6 6
tim e for 75% recovery (m ins) 14 14 14 14 14
5 in c h Max drawdown (m) 2 .9 4 .3 5 .7 7.1 8 .5
tim e for 50% recovery (m ins) 9 9 9 9 9
tim e for 75% recovery (m ins) 21 21 21 21 21
6 in c h Max drawdown (m) 2 .3 3 .4 4 .6 5 .7 6 .9 tim e for 50% recovery (m ins) 12 12 12 12 12 tim e for 75% recovery (m ins) 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8
8 in c h Max drawdown (m) 1.5 2 .3 3.1 3 .8 4 .6
tim e for 50% recovery (m ins) 19 19 19 19 19 tim e for 75% recovery (m ins) 4 6 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 7
‘ standard bailer is 4 .4 litres (1-m long 3-inch pipe)
Certain rationalisations can be made to produce simpler guidelines. To minimise the chance of a borehole being wrongly diagnosed as successful, the most optimistic scenarios are taken for each pumping rate and diameter. Also, since the maximum
A new b a ile r test f o r use in ru ral w a te r su p p ly p ro je c ts
drawdown is unlikely to be able to be taken at the exact time pumping stops, the drawdown after one minute recovery is taken. As the maximum drawdown can usually be taken within 30 seconds of the end of pumping this again makes diagnosis o f success more cautious. Table 6.3 shows these simplified guidelines.Having all three measurements (maximum drawdown and time for 50% and 75% recovery) is a useful check against mistakes. If the borehole diameter has been underestimated then the test may indicate a ‘pass’ for drawdown, but ‘failure’ on recovery. If the diameter has been overestimated, then the test may indicate a ‘failure’ on drawdown, but ‘pass’ for recovery. In both cases such results would indicate that a longer test which is less susceptible to borehole diameter should be undertaken.
These criteria were tested against 24 bailer tests undertaken in Oju and Obi (Table 6.4). Transmissivity results from the longest and most appropriate tests carried out in each borehole are given for comparison (data from Table 3.5). The test accurately
Table 6.4 Bailer test results for Oju and Obi. Transmissivity estimates for the boreholes (by constant rate test, or numerical analysis of bailer test) are given for comparison (see Table 3.5)
B-hole diam eter p-rate m ax dd
(m) teem t?5% m ax d d bailer te s t sc o re s tsO% ts7% overail T m^.d*
BG S1 5 inch 2 6 .3 5 2 7.1 33 6 3 fail fail fail fail 0 .2 7 B G S 2b 6 inch 2 7 .6 4 8 2.1 3.5 8 .5 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 4 .0 B G S 4 6 inch 2 1 .6 2 .5 16 40 p a s s fail fail retest 0 .7 B G S 6 6 inch 2 5 .9 2 0 .4 5 3 6 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 18 .5 B G S 1 2 6 inch 2 5 .0 5 6 3.1 7 .5 16 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 1.1 B G S 1 3 6 inch 2 7 .6 4 8 11 75 17 0 fail fail fail fail 0 .1 4 B G S 1 5 6 inch 2 3 .3 2 8 2 .1 5 8 .5 21 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 1.6 B G S 1 6 6 inch 1 6 .4 1 6 1.3 8 16 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 2.1 B G S 1 7 6 inch 2 5 .0 5 6 2 .0 8 2 3 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 1.4 B G S 1 9 6 inch 2 5 .9 2 1.0 2 .5 7 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 5 .0 B G S 2 0 6 inch 3 9 .7 4 4 0 .1 3 7 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 2 7 B G S21 6 inch 2 7 .6 4 8 1.4 6 15 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 4 .0 B G S 2 6 6 inch 1 2 .0 9 6 2 .7 5 193 19 3 fail fail fail fail 0 .0 2 4 B G S 2 7 6 inch 1 3 .1 3 2 8 4 .0 9 3 2 1 5 fail fail fail fail 0 .0 8 B G S 3 0 6 inch 2 6 .7 8 4 4 .7 6 3 113 p a s s fail fail fail 0 .3 6
B G S 3 3 6 inch 3 0 .2 4 0 .0 2 p a s s p a s s 51
B G S 3 4 6 inch 2 5 .9 2 0 .8 6 2 .5 10 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 6 .5 B G S 3 5 6 inch 2 5 .9 2 0 .3 5 2 .5 12 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 2 3 B G S 3 7 6 inch 1 9 .8 7 2 2 .8 5 17 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 0 .7 0 B G S 4 0 6 inch 1 1 .2 3 2 9 .0 3 8 9 3 fail fail fail fail 0 .1 5 B G S41 6 inch 1 9 .8 7 2 4.1 51 p a s s fail fail retest 0 .2 5 B G S 4 2 6 inch 2 5 .0 5 6 3 .6 8 .5 15 p a s s p a s s p a s s p a s s 0 .8 0 B G S 4 4 6 inch 2 4 .1 9 2 6 .5 2 6 45 fail fail fail fail 0 .1 0
A new b a ile r test f o r use in ru ral w a te r su p p ly p ro je c ts
identifies success or failure in all but two o f the tests. These two borderline cases (BGS37 and BGS42) were assigned passes when a longer test indicated transmissivity of 0.8.m ^.d'\ just below the pass rate. The longer tests showed breakaway drawdown and recovery curves indicated a reduction of transmissivity as the cone of depression extends. In both cases, numerical analysis of the bailer test gave transmissivity greater than 1 m^.d'* (see Table 6.1). Unfortunately, breakaway curves will not be detected with such short tests, but as discussed above, it is better than undertaking no test at all. Currently, the bailer test is being used by Water Aid and local government staff in Nigeria to good effect. It is being carried out as a check against the claims of contract drillers that boreholes are successful. Community members are helping to carry out the test (see Figure 6.11).
6.10 Summary
1. A short bailer test (Section 6.3) has been designed around the practical requirements of rural water supply workers. The test requires simple equipment, and can be completed in one hour.
2. Since the test is short and permeability generally low, the data are best analysed using large-diameter-well analysis which allows for well storage. This can be done with numerical analysis (BGSPT), nomograms, or using simple guidelines outlined here. 3. “Pumping” using bails instead of constant rate has virtually no effect on analysis. 4. Declining yields during the test (due to deeper water-levels and pumpers’ fatigue)
only becomes significant if the pumping rate declines by more than 65% during the test.
5. The test is designed for confined or semi-confined conditions, which are generally met in mudstone or basement aquifers over the length of the test.
6. Dual-porosity aquifers (such as mudstones) have negligible effect on the calculation of transmissivity up to Ss/K^ = 0.01 days. At times greater than this the maximum error is 100%, which may be considered admissible given the large uncertainty and range in transmissivity.
7. For use in rural water supply programmes with boreholes of 4-8 inch diameter supplied with hand pumps, transmissivity of greater than 1 m^.d'^ indicates a successful borehole (0.85 m^.d'' for S = 0.01; 1.35 m^.d"^ for S = 0.00001).
A new b a iler test f o r use in rural w a ter su pply p ro jects
8. For a set o f 15 boreholes in Nigeria bailer tests were found to predict similar
transmissivity to five-hour constant rate test (r^ = 0.9)
9. The test has been further simplified to indicate ‘yes/no/maybe’ for the borehole sustaining the yield o f a hand-pump by measuring the maximum drawdown and time for 50% and 75% recovery.
Figure 6.12 Com m unity m embers carrying out a bailer test at Edumoga village, Oju.
In summary, the test is theoretically sound for low permeability environments, and could be widely applied for testing low yielding rural water supply boreholes in any geological unit. However, field trials of the bailer test in other environments and with other groups o f water project staff throughout Africa should be undertaken to improve its practicality and demonstrate its usefulness.