Research in educational leadership about very similar phenomena “appear to reach different as well as similar conclusions” (Morrison, 2007, p. 18). So researchers in the field of educational leadership, like other researchers in the social sciences, need to address carefully assumptions on the “two conceptions of social reality”: (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2011, p. 5) ontology and epistemology. In this section of the methodology chapter, my positionality is clearly stated as resulting from the ontological and epistemological standpoints that thus lead to the selection of the research methods adopted for this research. As highlighted by Greenbank, (2003, p. 792) researchers “will inevitably be influenced by their underlying ontological and epistemological position” when choosing which methods to adopt to conduct their research.
3.3.1 Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology.
Ontology is “the nature of reality” (Creswell, 2007, p. 16). Cohen et al. (2011, p. 5) determine two facets of reality, the reality that is “external to individuals” and thus “imposing itself on their consciousness from without” and the reality which “is the product of individual consciousness”. Keeping in mind the two facets of
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reality as highlighted by Cohen et al., (2011, p. 5), as a researcher it was necessary for me to ask whether the responses were the interviewees’ personal interpretation or “the product” of the interviewees based on the realities witnessed in their school. A careful selection of questions and probes was made so that the realities described by interviewees were not self-invented. However, the interviewees’ responses were the interpretation of the situations encountered during their everyday school life and thus it was necessary for me to understand “their particular social frameworks” (Clough and Nutbrown, 2012, p. 27) and their challenges in schools, in particular the instability that is hampering the Maltese educational system which the Malta Union of Teachers established as “a crisis in the teaching profession due to a variety of urgent issues which remain unsolved” (MUT, 2017). Acknowledging that “reality is multi-perspectival”, (Morrison, 2007, p. 26) trusting the interviewees was essential. Morrison (2007, p. 26) argues that “the way that humans create meanings” is in fact by giving accounts of what they do, “affected by context”. Whilst it was not that straightforward for me to conclude whether the realities given are subjective and/or objective, I considered reality as independent to my knowledge, given that I am a teacher and was seeking data about positive relationships and school leadership. Thus, I subscribed to the view that reality and truth are the product of individual perception. This ontological position helped me to appreciate the complexity of the research question under investigation about positive relationships in schools as interviewees (Heads of School, sample of teaching staff, and students) had contrasting and sometimes even contradicting views about the issues raised. Throughout the research process, I became aware that almost all of the respondents were giving the real view as various interviewees even highlighted personal anecdotes and told me that certain responses were highly sensitive, at which point the interviewees were reassured of the anonymity and confidentiality of this study. Thus in this research, I go along with the view that the reality is “the product of individual consciousness” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 5).
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge and asks questions that “concern the very bases of knowledge”, (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 6) how knowledge is acquired
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“or what the rules for knowing are” (Scheurich, 1994, p. 18). Morrison (2007, p. 18) indicates that every researcher asks questions about knowledge and how knowledge distinguishes “truth from falsehood”. As this research is about the effect of positive relationships in schools, the humanistic approach through experiences of school leaders, teachers, and students is knowledge, and thus subscribing to the views of intuitive knowledge such as knowledge through interviewees’ feelings, attitudes, and beliefs was of vital importance in this research. I subscribed to the view that knowledge is based on experiences that school leaders, the teaching staff and students encounter at school. I adopted this epistemological position as I believe that knowledge about positive relationships in schools can be better obtained and understood through the daily experiences that all these stakeholders encounter at school. These ontological and epistemological views discussed were subscribed to in this research and as Morrison (2007, p. 19) outlines, these “epistemological and methodological concerns are implicated at every stage of the research process”.
3.3.2 Research Paradigms.
Described by Denscombe (2010, p. 326) as “a set of beliefs and practices associated with a particular style of research”, a research paradigm is also referred to by Creswell (2007, p. 19) as “worldview” which he defines as “a general orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher holds” (Creswell, 2009, p. 6). Quantitative and qualitative research are the “most obvious” (Denscombe, 2010, p. 326) research paradigms with Clough and Nutbrown (2012, p. 18) advising of a third paradigm: “the emergence of critical theory” which is “linked with the political stance of emancipation of individuals and groups within society” (Clough and Nutbrown, 2012, p. 18). Denscombe (2010, p. 326) further outlines that research is carried out “with a specific philosophy and world-view and that those who operate within the research paradigm share those views”. Thomas (2004, p. 165) argues that “leadership is not achieved in a social vacuum” and this means that the particular context affects leadership. As highlighted by Thomas (2004, p. 165), school leadership should therefore consider “possibilities and constraints derived from the cultural,
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political and economic contexts of education and from education policies framed within these contexts”. Creswell (2007, p. 15) observes that “good research requires making these assumptions, paradigms, and frameworks” clear as these do “influence the conduct of inquiry”.
Creswell (2007) outlines four worldviews: Post-positivism, Constructivism, Advocacy and Participatory, and Pragmatism. Post-positivism is “a scientific approach” (Creswell, 2007, p. 20) through logic and is normally associated with quantitative research. Contrary to post-positivism, where research starts with a theory, in constructivism, qualitative researchers “generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning” (Creswell, 2007, p. 21). The advocacy and participatory worldview gives a voice to individuals or groups with “an action agenda for reform” (Creswell, 2007, p. 21) that helps these individuals or groups with “specific social issues” (Creswell, 2007, p. 22). In pragmatism, often used by mixed methods researchers, researchers are free to choose “the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet their needs and purposes” (Creswell, 2007, p. 23). However, Cohen et al. (2011, p. 23) clearly state that in pragmatism, “there may be both singular and multiple versions of the truth and reality, sometimes subjective and sometimes objective, sometimes scientific and sometimes humanistic”. Being a mixed-methods study, as will be discussed in Section 3.4, pragmatists believe that research occurs in a social, historical, political, and other contexts (Creswell, 2007, p. 23). Similarly, Clough and Nutbrown (2012, p. 14) argue that “all social research takes place in policy contexts of one form or another, research itself must therefore be seen as inevitably political”.
When discussing research paradigms, it is worth noting that in educational research, researchers “do not select one research paradigm to investigate all their questions” (Clough and Nutbrown, 2012, p. 21) but instead combine paradigms in order to “berate the boldness or exaggeration of research claims emanating from one paradigm” (Morrison, 2007, p. 21). Cohen et al. (2011, p. 26) claim that “it is perhaps too early to judge” whether or not mixed methods “constitutes a new
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paradigm”; however, “it is a way of thinking, in which researchers have to see the world as integrated” from their ontological and epistemological standpoints.
3.3.3 Positionality of the Researcher.
Clough and Nutbrown (2010, p. 10) clearly state that all research in the social sciences “is saturated with positionality” as it is carried out by human beings and “it is inevitable that the standpoint of the researcher is a fundamental platform on which enquiry is developed”. I feel that it is necessary that as from the very beginning, my position will be declared as was the philosophical approach to knowledge through establishing the ontological and epistemological standpoints.
Being a teacher myself, I know that my position could have led to bias as it could have been difficult for Heads of School to say certain things that they do not want any teacher to know regarding matters which they felt should remain solely amongst their Senior Leadership Team (SLT). Being aware of this bias and through careful self-reflection, keeping in mind that Malta is a small island where people in education and other settings do know each other, I assured the Heads of School of strict confidentiality and that not a single word said throughout the semi-structured interviews would be repeated to any other person, especially to other teachers whom I happened to know and who taught at the very same schools within what I am calling, St David’s College. Assuring the Heads of School of my values and integrity and that no judgement was going to be passed as the data was being collected for the sake of my PhD research only was the way forward before conducting the semi-structured interviews. In spite of the fact that I am a very organised person and dream of effective schools, being a teacher and not involved directly in the schools’ SLT could also have impacted this research as all the Heads of School had more professional experience than myself. Having said that, it is worth mentioning that apart from holding a teaching role, I’m in charge of discipline at my workplace. Furthermore, I have some educational leadership experience, having coordinated various summer schools in Malta for eight years; during one particular summer students totalled six hundred.
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Careful attention was taken even when sitting down for each semi-structured interview. Taking into account that some of the interviewees were females, as a male researcher I kept a reasonable distance from the interviewees so that they would not feel uneasy about being alone with me inside an office or classroom. Ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, as well as the interviewees’ ease of mind and comfort helped to reduce any bias, thus providing me with their school realities.
I must also declare that being a Catholic who in the past was also an active voluntary member of the Society for Christian Doctrine known as M.U.S.E.U.M., founded by St George Preca in 1907 in Malta, helping others to achieve their best and doing good are values that are deeply ingrained in me and this has without doubt influenced me in my choice of the concept ‘Leadership that Loves’ for this thesis. This goes on with what Denscombe (2010, p. 302) states: that my “identity, values and beliefscannot be entirely eliminated”. Also, being raised in a family where my parents have done everything in their power to see me succeed and to have the best educational experience in schooling further influences my positionality. I am aware that not all students share my experience, and that their realities as students attending state schools in Malta, may be very different, some whose most basic needs need to be fulfilled first before being able to learn. I must also make it clear that I do not have any political agenda and, have no party political bias or involvement.