Transnational programmes require enhanced quality assurance because of the complexity of teaching arrangements, geographical separation and cultural challenges (Hussain, 2007). As a result, national quality assurance systems in both host and home countries are the mainstay in scrutinising the programmes. The accreditation process as outlined in Chapter 1 is a commitment to quality by all HE providers. Discussion in the literature showed an indispensable relationship between education quality, student satisfaction and students’ expectations and experiences. The following sections focus on research with the general aim to achieve quality education by understanding students’ expectations and experiences, and what satisfied them.
2.6.1 Evaluating Satisfaction
Students’ academic experiences were the most significant determinants of overall satisfaction and quality of education in HE (Gibson, 2010). They relate to the quality of teaching, skills and knowledge acquired, as well as the curriculum of the programme. Other predictors of student satisfaction include their emotional behaviours towards the university, which are categorised as non-academic factors (e.g. sense of belonging within the higher education). In the context of TNE, students’ emotions are greatly influenced by their exposure to cross- cultural teaching and learning, engagement with institutions (i.e. host and home institutions), and the university’s responsiveness to their concerns and suggestions (Gibson, 2010). A summary of student satisfaction predictors is shown in Table 2.2.
27
Table 2.2 Common set of predictors of student satisfaction
Key variable Alternative descriptors
Academic staff/ teaching Quality of instruction, expertise and interest in subject, degree of caring, helpfulness, accessibility, feedback provided
Classes/ curriculum Overall design and delivery, usefulness scheduling, content, availability, class size/ logistics, level of difficulty
Advising support Accessibility, reliability, professionalism, helpfulness, responsiveness, understanding
Skills developed Relationship skills, critical thinking, intellectual growth, social/ moral awareness
Preparation for future Preparation for or furthering career, expecting good job/ quality of life
Services/ facilities Availability, access, physical aspects, usefulness, IT support Social integration Opportunities to socialise, campus safety, sense of belonging,
enjoyable experience, diversity of student body Student centeredness/
responsiveness
Responsiveness to student concerns/ suggestions, helpfulness, academic support, financial aid
Pre-enrolment factors Accuracy of information provided, 1st, 2nd, 3rd choice, admissions and orientation, degree to which met expectations Adapted from (Gibson, 2010)
Boyle and Sastrowardoyo (2012) expanded on the findings reported by Gibson (2010) and developed a four-phase model (i.e. pre-enrolment, academic, connection and post-degree experiences) detailing TNE graduate students’ satisfaction factors at different stages of their studies. However, due to the limited sample size, further research is required to explore these satisfaction factors. Nevertheless, the model suggests that evaluation of students’ satisfaction factors should start at pre-enrolment phase and continue throughout the programme.
Miliszewska and Sztendur (2012) attempted to assess student satisfaction when they were doing their TNE studies. The study was very large scale and involved students in eight TNE computing programmes offered in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam by Australian universities. Student satisfaction with various attributes (related to instructors, technology, programme management and administration) were compared. Written comments provided by students gave an understanding of how their learning experience encouraged or frustrated them. Overall, the Miliszewska and Sztendur’s quantitative study provided stakeholders involved in teaching, developing and managing the programme an insight into students' views on their programme’s effectiveness.
28 2.6.2 Assessing Expectations and Experiences
Expectations have been variously defined as desires, wants, and needs of customers (Teas, 1994). They are influenced by individual needs, prior experience of the service, word-of- mouth communication, external contact from the service provider, and the cost of the service offered (Zeithaml et al., 1990). Establishing expectations of ‘customers’ is the first and most critical step in delivering service quality and aids in creating effective marketing plans for universities (Zeithaml et al., 1990, Hill, 1995). It also acts as a benchmark (Chapman and Pyvis, 2006) and represents an important determinant of satisfaction (Mai, 2005): one would have high levels of satisfaction when expectations are being met (Kotler and Clarke, 1987, Appleton-Knapp and Krentler, 2006).
Thus by understanding them, educators can exert some control in correctly informing students about the expectations of a programme (Appleton-Knapp and Krentler, 2006). This is especially crucial in first year students as experiences during the first semester at university may be critical in a student’s decision to continue or discontinue studies (Kantanis, 2000). A better alignment between student expectations and the reality of their first-year experiences could increase their engagement and retention (Kantanis, 2000, McInnis et al., 2000, Crisp et al., 2009). Therefore, the more congruence that exists between a student’s expectations and the experiences offered by the institution, the more likely the student is to persist in his/her studies (Braxton et al., 1995).
Many reasons were cited for students leaving a programme such as change of intentions, uncertainty for the future, other commitments, lack of adjustment, academic difficulty, academic boredom, financial difficulty, and isolation (McInnis and James, 1995). Enabling factors that could assist first-year transition include the availability of student support services, accessibility to information technology services, the usefulness of the resources, the relevance of study material and study skills support (McInnis, 2002). Orientation programmes before the semester starts are also an effective enabler aiding the transition process during the first year (McInnis and James, 1995, McInnis et al., 2000, Hillman, 2005). However, orientation is just a start and student support should span throughout the entire university journey. The key is to support students while at the same time facilitating their
29
independence (McInnis and James, 1995). It is also important for first year students to have a sense of belonging to a learning community (Bateson and Taylor, 2004) as the assimilation into the university culture socially and academically can foster their success (Kantanis, 2000). Bowles and colleagues (2011) later identified intrinsic (i.e. student-centred) and extrinsic (i.e. university-led) factors as two distinct groups of enabling factors for first year transition. She suggested that universities could concentrate on the extrinsic elements, which are within their control to enable successful transitions. Ziguras (2009) and Eldridge and Cranston (2009) studied learning behaviours and revealed that transnational students were able to adapt to different learning approaches if supportive measures were in place especially during the initial transition phase.
While most studies exploring first-year transition (college freshmen entering institutions of higher education) did not involve transnational students, research did provide insights into the importance of understanding first-year transition and the factors affecting a successful transition (Krallman and Holcomb, 1997, Brinkworth et al., 2008, Crisp et al., 2009, Bowles et al., 2011). Unlike the settings depicted in existing research, transnational students are in a special learning environment where there are two entry points into university life; one when they first enter university life and then the transition from home to host campus. The differences in intrinsic and extrinsic factors at these two different points of entry are worth exploring (Nukpe, 2012).
In the context of TNE, expectations and experiences of students in transnational programmes in Australia were studied. Leask (2006) examined the characteristics of academic staff most valued by transnational students. It was discovered that students expected teaching staff to exhibit particular skills and knowledge within an intercultural context. Chapman and Pyvis (2006) explored the reasons why Malaysian students enrolled in Australian offshore programmes in Malaysia. They found that students shared the belief that associates international education with quality learning. They expected the quality of teaching in an international programme to be higher than local ones. Also, students viewed an international education as a status symbol, provides international exposure and outlook, an investment in career advancement, and a pathway for personal growth and development. These aspirations effected their decisions to study in a transnational programme. Pyvis and Chapman (2007)
30
described these motivations as positional and self-transformative investments. In their study, despite the criticism by Malaysian students (mainly on teaching practices, course materials and learning demands) students generally accepted the experience as part of the challenge in transforming themselves. The current research would further explore Malaysian pharmacy undergraduate students involved in TNE that are not part of an Australian offshore programme, i.e. UK offshore programme.
Hoare (2006) conducted a longitudinal study of transnational student and staff experiences in Singapore. Her fieldwork showed that intercultural differences have consistently influenced and transformed students and academics at every level of the programme. Nevertheless, academics developed cultural competency and at the same time, students adapted relatively quickly to new pedagogies during their sojourns2.
Student sojourns, foreign students and overseas students are all terms which refer to international students who leave their country of origin to undertake tertiary study abroad (Ramsay et al., 2007). Similar to international students, transnational entrants are students who undertake tertiary study abroad but transfer their courses (or credits) delivered by an overseas institution to the home institution ultimately leading to an undergraduate degree. Studies of international students showed that students expected to experience a range of emotional and physical challenges in response to the loss of unfamiliar signs and symbols (which included words, gestures, customs, and norms learned during early socialisation). These sudden changes also led to a sense of loss, fear of rejection, confusion in role definition, anxiety, and frustration. Researchers have characterized these series of changes and stresses as culture shock (Oberg, 1960, Adler, 1975), learning shock, education shock (Hoff, 1979, Yamazaki, 2005), language shock (Agar, 1996), role shock (Byrnes, 1966, Minkler and Biller, 1979) and assessment shock (Mohamad et al., 2006). Ability to identify these issues should assist academics in preparing and delivering lessons that could help students adapt to the culture of learning in TNE. The realisation of the challenges faced by transnational students might also allow academics to take the necessary actions to make the TNE transition quickly and painlessly. When students change to fit in the host culture, adaptation takes place but
2 A sojourn is commonly understood as a temporary stay abroad for a specific purpose such as academic study
31
various degrees of adaptation could happen depending upon personal and situational characteristics (Gudykunst, 2005). Successful adaptation can facilitate personal growth and development (Byrnes, 1966, Adler, 1975, Anderson, 1994, Furnham, 2004).
Experiences of transnational entrants were mostly discussed in the context of cultural differences occurring in Australia. It was not until 2014 that a small scale study was carried out to explore the experience of students enrolled in UK based TNE programme (National Union of Students, 2014). Three prominent themes identified were access to resources, support from academic staff, and equity/standards of both institutions involved in the TNE programmes. However, it is relevant to note that this was a small scale research, thus a larger scale study involving more students may give more confidence to the research findings.