(QVXULQJ UHJLRQDO DQG JOREDO FRPSDWLELOLW\ RI
e-transaction laws is a key challenge due to the increased use of electronic technologies by
*RYHUQPHQWV FRPSDQLHV DQG FLWL]HQV Therefore, when preparing or revising e-commerce legislation, lawmakers should consider that of other countries in the same region or of trading partners to have compatible legal systems and trade policies. Legal recognition of e-signatures, electronic contracts and evidence at a national level should be extended to those originating in other jurisdictions.
2YHU WKH SDVW \HDUV DGYDQFHV WRZDUGV
KDUPRQL]DWLRQ KDYH EHHQ PDGH LQ VHYHUDO UHJLRQV
However, as different standards are used, there is still a need to make laws more compatible internationally. 7KH (&& FDQ KHOS LQ SURPRWLQJ
compatibility of laws. It proposes a set of core legal provisions enabling cross-border e-commerce.
Countries should consider aligning their legislation on e-transactions with the provisions of this
&RQYHQWLRQ %HFRPLQJ D SDUW\ WR LW will favour regional and international compatibility, including the cross-border recognition of e-signatures, as the Convention provides principles that could form the basis of a mutual recognition system (DUWLFOH ER[9 19
)LJXUH}9 :RUOGPDSRIF\EHUFULPHODZV
Legend
'DUNEOXHtFRXQWULHVZLWKOHJLVODWLRQ 9LROHWtFRXQWULHVZLWKQROHJLVODWLRQ Light blue – countries with draft legislation Grey – countries with no data Source: 81&7$' VHHDQQH[
2. Streamline consumer protection policies
Differences in national consumer protection laws are D FKDOOHQJH IRU FURVVERUGHU HFRPPHUFH (IIRUWV DW
KDUPRQL]LQJFRQVXPHUSURWHFWLRQODZVLQHFRPPHUFH
are carried out by various regional groupings.
$WWKHHQGRIWKH2(&'ZDVLQWKHSURFHVVRI
UHYLHZLQJLWV*XLGHOLQHV 2(&'E 7KHREMHFWLYH
LVWRUHƅHFWUHOHYDQWSROLF\SULQFLSOHVSHUWDLQLQJWR%&
HFRPPHUFH LQ D QXPEHU RI 2(&' DFWV VLQFH WKHLU
adoption in 1999. At the global level, the United Nations is also conducting consultations on the UHYLVLRQRIWKH81*&3 8QLWHG1DWLRQV in the light of market and regulatory developments, including those related to e-commerce. The consultations aim to capture the needs of developing countries. The UHYLVHG JXLGHOLQHV PD\ EH DYDLODEOH E\ Salient WRSLFV GLVFXVVHG GXULQJ WKH FRQVXOWDWLRQV LQFOXGH
effective protection that is no less favourable to that RIRWKHUIRUPVRIFRPPHUFH ULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVRI
FRQVXPHUV DQG EXVLQHVVHV YXOQHUDEOH FRQVXPHUV
PRELOH SODWIRUPV SD\PHQW DOWHUQDWLYH GLVSXWH
UHVROXWLRQ FRQVXPHUHGXFDWLRQDQGDZDUHQHVV GDWD
DQGSULYDF\SURWHFWLRQ DSSOLFDEOHODZDQGMXULVGLFWLRQ
and bilateral, regional and international cooperation.
7KHUHYLVHG81*&3ZLOORQO\JLYHSROLF\DGYLFHDQGZLOO
WKHUHIRUHQRWFUHDWHDFRQƅLFWZLWKHLWKHUQDWLRQDOODZV
or regional frameworks/instruments. Countries that are preparing or revising their consumer protection laws for e-commerce may consider aligning their legislation ZLWKWKH81*&3DQG2(&'*XLGHOLQHVWRHQFRXUDJH
KDUPRQL]DWLRQRIFRQVXPHUSURWHFWLRQOHJLVODWLRQDQG
IRVWHUFRQVXPHUFRQƄGHQFHLQHFRPPHUFH
There is a need to set up consumer protection agencies in several developing countries and to strengthen existing ones in other countries. In addition, information sharing would facilitate cross-border e-commerce. This would require an agreement between consumer protection agencies in a given region, complemented by appropriate investigation and referral tools. Linking up agencies through QHWZRUNVVXFKDV,&3(1FDQKHOSQDWLRQDODJHQFLHV
to keep abreast of new legal regional or international developments, as well as to share experiences and bring out solutions for e-commerce users.
The use of alternative dispute resolution and redress schemes that are affordable and easy to use is also to be recommended. Some of the most effective schemes are currently embedded in self-regulatory bodies, law enforcement agencies, ombudsmen and other entities. The use of trustmarks, such as WKH H&RQƄDQ]D ZZZHFRQƄDQ]DRUJ LQLWLDWLYH RI WKH
,QVWLWXWR /DWLQDPHULFDQR GH &RPHUFLR (OHFWUÐnico (eInstituto), LV DOVR ZRUWK H[SORULQJ 7KLV QRQSURƄW
RUJDQL]DWLRQKDVFUHDWHGDFRGHRIJRRGSUDFWLFHVWR
guide companies on how to address consumer needs properly when designing their online businesses, and RIIHUVDQRQOLQHGLVSXWHUHVROXWLRQWRROFDOOHG3DFWDQGD
(www.pactanda.com).
3. Streamlining data protection and cybercrime policies
The development and adoption of legal frameworks for protecting personal data and for combating cybercrime at the national level should not be done in isolation. Achieving the compatibility of laws and
%R[9 ,QWHJUDWLQJGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVLQWKHUHJLRQDODQGJOREDOF\EHUHFRQRP\
7KH (&& DLPV WR SURPRWH WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI XQLIRUP OHJLVODWLRQ DQG WR HQKDQFH OHJDO FHUWDLQW\ DQG FRPPHUFLDO
SUHGLFWDELOLW\ZKHUHHOHFWURQLFFRPPXQLFDWLRQVDUHXVHGLQUHODWLRQWRLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQWUDFWV7KH&RQYHQWLRQIXOƄOVIRXU
PDLQJRDOV
• It facilitates the use of electronic communications contained in treaties drafted before the widespread use of those FRPPXQLFDWLRQV
• ,WUHLQIRUFHVWKHOHYHORIXQLIRUPLW\LQWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH81&,75$/0RGHO/DZV
• ,WXSGDWHVFHUWDLQSURYLVLRQVRIWKH81&,75$/0RGHO/DZVVXFKDVWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHSDUWLHVWKHWLPHDQGSODFH
RI GLVSDWFK DQG UHFHLSW DQG WKH IXQFWLRQDO HTXLYDOHQFH IRU qVLJQDWXUHr ZKLFK LQ SUDFWLFH HQDEOHV FURVVERUGHU
recognition of all types of e-signatures. It also introduces new provisions such as the use of automated message V\VWHPVLQYLWDWLRQWRPDNHRIIHUVDQGWKHOLNH
• ,WSURYLGHVFRUHSURYLVLRQVRQHWUDQVDFWLRQVWRHQVXUHUHJLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDUPRQL]DWLRQ
Source: 81&7$'EDVHGRQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV
policies at the regional and international level is desirable. The establishment of minimum standards helps to ensure cross-border coordination on the design and implementation of relevant legislation and stronger enforcement institutions.
(VWDEOLVKLQJ DQ HIƄFLHQW GDWD SURWHFWLRQ UHJXODWRU\
agency can be challenging from both a resource and a political perspective. Lessons may be learned from the telecommunications sector, where such agencies have been widely accepted as a critical component of a successful regulatory regime. Combining regulatory functions between data protection and consumer protection agencies may be a way to reduce the regulatory costs of data protection.
Similarly, comprehensive frameworks for cooperation outreach and enforcement of cybercrime need to be developed. Investigating even a single communication may require cooperation among several national law enforcement agencies (including the private sector).
5HJLRQDO FRRSHUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ F\EHUFULPH ODZ
enforcement agencies may involve the establishment of FRPPRQWUDLQLQJDQGUHVRXUFHFHQWUHVDQGQDWLRQDO
contact points.
9DULRXV VHFXULW\ PHDVXUHV t SK\VLFDO ORJLFDO RU
RUJDQL]DWLRQDOtVKRXOGEHXVHGWRSURWHFWGDWDDJDLQVW
deliberate acts of misuse. Implementing appropriate
data security should consider the quality of data, the needs of individual data subjects, the entity processing the personal data and, indeed, society at large.
3ROLF\PDNHUV DUH LQFUHDVLQJO\ UHFRJQL]LQJ WKH ,QWHUQHW
DV qFULWLFDO QDWLRQDO LQIUDVWUXFWXUHr RYHU ZKLFK D ULVLQJ
proportion of economic and social activities are carried RXW EXW DOVR DV D qVRXUFH RI YXOQHUDELOLW\r $GGUHVVLQJ
this duality and putting in place adequate data security measures – from the adoption of cybercrime laws to the establishment of computer emergency response teams/
computer security incident response teams – should be DFRUHFRPSRQHQWRIWKHSROLF\UHVSRQVH3XEOLFtSULYDWH
partnerships may be important in this context.
4. Strengthening the capacity of lawmakers and judiciary
The judiciary in many developing countries needs to be trained in the area of cyberlaws. Legal issues around e-commerce are still relatively new. Several LQWHUQDWLRQDO DQG UHJLRQDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV LQFOXGLQJ
WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK VHFUHWDULDW ,78 81&,75$/
81&7$' WKH 8QLWHG 1DWLRQV 2IƄFH RQ 'UXJV
DQG &ULPH DQG WKH &RXQFLO RI (XURSH FDQ SURYLGH
assistance to countries and regions in the different legal areas. Increasingly, these agencies are joining IRUFHVWRPD[LPL]HWKHLUDFWLRQV ER[9
%R[9 81&7$'DVVLVWDQFHZLWKSDUWQHUV
In support of developing countries’ efforts in this area, UNCTAD assists in the preparation and revision of e-commerce ODZVDOLJQHGZLWKLQWHUQDWLRQDODQGUHJLRQDOLQVWUXPHQWV7KHDVVLVWDQFHSURYLGHGLQWKHKDUPRQL]DWLRQRIHFRPPHUFH
OHJLVODWLRQDFURVVUHJLRQVLQWKH$6($1WKH(DVW$IULFDQ&RPPXQLW\ ($& (&2:$6/DWLQ$PHULFDDQG&HQWUDO$PHULFD
has created an impetus for countries to push for the adoption of national laws in this area. The work has involved close FROODERUDWLRQZLWKUHJLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQVVXFKDVWKH$IULFDQ8QLRQ&RPPLVVLRQWKH$6($1VHFUHWDULDWWKH($&VHFUHWDULDW
WKH(&2:$6&RPPLVVLRQWKH$VRFLDFLÐQ/DWLQRDPHULFDQDGH,QWHJUDFLÐQDQGWKH6HFUHWDULDWRIWKH6LVWHPD(FRQÐPLFR
Latinoamericano y del Caribe.
2YHUVL[W\FRXQWULHVKDYHWRGDWHEHHQHQJDJHGZLWK81&7$'WKDQNVWRWKHVXSSRUWRIWKH*RYHUQPHQWVRI)LQODQG
and Spain. Capacity-building activities have strengthened the knowledge of policy and lawmakers on legal issues of e-commerce and international best practice, allowing them to formulate laws in line with their regional frameworks.
Several agencies are assisting developing countries within the scope of their mandates, and inter-agency collaboration LVJURZLQJ7ZRH[DPSOHVRIVXFKFRRSHUDWLRQDUHWKHEULHƄQJRI&RPPRQZHDOWKSDUOLDPHQWDULDQVVHUYLFHGE\81&7$'
DQG RUJDQL]HG MRLQWO\ ZLWK WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK 7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ 2UJDQL]DWLRQ DQG WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK 3DUOLDPHQWDU\
$VVRFLDWLRQDWWKHRFFDVLRQRIWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK&\EHUVHFXULW\)RUXP$QRWKHUH[DPSOHLVWKHMRLQWZRUNVKRSRQ
WKHKDUPRQL]DWLRQRIF\EHUOHJLVODWLRQLQ(&2:$6 *KDQD0DUFK RUJDQL]HGE\81&7$'ZLWK81&,75$/WKH$IULFDQ
&HQWUHIRU&\EHUODZDQG&\EHUFULPH3UHYHQWLRQWKH&RXQFLORI(XURSHDQGWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK&\EHUFULPH,QLWLDWLYH
UNCTAD has built a network of institutions with which consolidated partnerships are concluded within the different project DFWLYLWLHV0DQ\RIWKHPFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHFRQVROLGDWLRQRIWKHGDWDEDVHXVHGLQWKLVFKDSWHU7KHUHVXOWRIWKLVƄUVWHYHUJOREDO
mapping is available online and countries are invited and encouraged to contribute to keeping this database up-to-date.
Source: UNCTAD.
%R[9 $ZDUHQHVVFDPSDLJQVRQHFRPPHUFH laws in Uganda
In Uganda, the National Information Technology Authority DQG WKH 0LQLVWU\ RI ,&7 KDYH GHYHORSHG DQG HQDFWHG
VXEVLGLDU\OHJLVODWLRQ WKDWLVWKH(OHFWURQLF7UDQVDFWLRQV
$FWDQGWKH(OHFWURQLF6LJQDWXUHV$FW WRRSHUDWLRQDOL]H
WKH($&)UDPHZRUNRQ&\EHU/DZV 81&7$'E
6LQFH WKH 1DWLRQDO ,QIRUPDWLRQ 7HFKQRORJ\
Authority has embarked on raising awareness about these laws as well as aspects of information security to encourage public administration and the private sector to put in place minimum information security controls WR HQVXUH VDIH HWUDQVDFWLRQV 6HYHUDO VHQVLWL]DWLRQ
ZRUNVKRSVZHUHRUJDQL]HGIRUHQWLWLHVVXFKDVPLQLVWULHV
banker associations, law societies, national chambers of commerce, the Investment Authority and the Securities ([FKDQJH :RUNVKRSV ZHUH IDFLOLWDWHG E\ D PXOWL
institutional team of lawyers and technical resource SHUVRQVLQFOXGLQJH[SHUWVSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKH($&7DVN
)RUFHVXSSRUWHGE\81&7$')XWXUHSODQVLQFOXGHWKH
delivery of similar workshops to create awareness of the 'DWD3URWHFWLRQDQG3ULYDF\%LOORQFHHQDFWHG
Source: UNCTAD.
5. Enhancing the awareness of consumers and companies
As the legal environment for e-commerce is evolving, and differs from one jurisdiction to another, consumers and enterprises need to be aware of relevant laws and of means of redress. This is particularly important to build trust in cross-border e-commerce. Industry associations and consumer protection agencies should work together to overcome barriers caused by divergent national legal standards. National public campaigns (including through radio and television programmes) aimed at informing about ways to protect consumers online can be a key element of DZDUHQHVVUDLVLQJVWUDWHJLHV ER[9
NOTES
1 7KHVXUYH\VZHUHFRQGXFWHGLQWKHUHJLRQVRI$6($1 LQ DQGWKH(FRQRPLF&RPPXQLW\RI:HVW$IULFDQ
6WDWHV (&2:$6 LQ DQGLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDDQGWKH&DULEEHDQ LQ
,Q 6LQJDSRUHEHFDPHWKHƄUVWFRXQWU\WRHQDFWOHJLVODWLRQXVLQJWKH0RGHO/DZDVDEDVLV VHHKWWS ZZZ
XQFLWUDORUJXQFLWUDOHQXQFLWUDOBWH[WVHOHFWURQLFBFRPPHUFH 0RGHOBVWDWXVKWPO DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HH KWWS ZZZXQFLWUDORUJXQFLWUDOHQXQFLWUDOBWH[WVHOHFWURQLFBFRPPHUFH0RGHOBVWDWXVKWPO DFFHVVHG
}-DQXDU\
4 7KH FRXQWULHV DUH WKH &RQJR WKH 'RPLQLFDQ 5HSXEOLF +RQGXUDV 0RQWHQHJUR WKH 5XVVLDQ )HGHUDWLRQ DQG
Singapore.
5 6HH KWWS ZZZXQFLWUDORUJXQFLWUDOHQXQFLWUDOBWH[WVHOHFWURQLFBFRPPHUFH&RQYHQWLRQBVWDWXVKWPO DFFHVVHG
}-DQXDU\
3XEOLFNH\LQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVDFU\SWRJUDSKLFWHFKQLTXHWKDWHQDEOHVXVHUVWRVHFXUHO\FRPPXQLFDWHRQDQLQVHFXUH
public network and reliably verify the identity of a user via digital signatures.
:LWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRI%XUNLQD)DVR
6HHKWWS HXURSDHXX[.* DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
9 7KHVHƄQGLQJVDUHVXSSRUWHGE\DJOREDOVXUYH\RQWKHVWDWXVRIFRQVXPHUSURWHFWLRQWKDWIRXQGWKDWWKH,&7VHFWRU
HQMR\VOHVVFRQVXPHUSURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHVWKDQWUDGLWLRQDOVHFWRUV &RQVXPHUV,QWHUQDWLRQDO
6HH KWWS HXUOH[HXURSDHXOHJDOFRQWHQWHQ$// (/;B6(66,21,' NT-U;E I7OZ&1&\-7\0=Q1SO<\
PQNE *I54-K4"XUL &(/(; '& DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
11 7KLVKDVEHHQVWUHVVHGE\GHOHJDWHVLQWKH$6($1DQGLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDLQWKHFRQWH[WRI81&7$'pVDVVLVWDQFH
VHHIRUH[DPSOH81&7$' D
6HHKWWSV LFSHQRUJ DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HHKWWS ZZZHFRQVXPHUJRYHQJOLVKUHVRXUFHVWUHQGVVKWP DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
14 &RQVXPHU&UHGLW$FW VHFWLRQ
15 Hacking here refers to the gaining of access (wanted or unwanted) to a computer and viewing, copying, or creating data (leaving a trace) without the intention of destroying data or maliciously harming the computer.
6HHq7KHZRUOGpVWRSF\EHUFULPHKRWVSRWVr7LPHFRP$XJXVW DYDLODEOHDWKWWS WLPHFRP
WKHZRUOGVF\EHUFULPHKRWVSRWV DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HH2(&' DQG'LUHFWLYH(8RIWKH(XURSHDQ3DUOLDPHQWDQGWKH&RXQFLORI(XURSHRI$XJXVW
RQDWWDFNVDJDLQVWLQIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPV DYDLODEOHDWKWWS HXUOH[HXURSDHXOHJDOFRQWHQW(17;73')"XUL &(/(; / IURP (1 DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
)RUH[DPSOHRXWRI0DOD\VLDpVODZ\HUVRQO\IRXUZHUHUHSRUWHGO\DEOHWRKDQGOHF\EHUFULPHVLQ VHH
q8QGHUVWDQGLQJ F\EHUFULPLQDOVr 6WUDLW 7LPHV )HEUXDU\ $QG LQ ,QGLD WKH 'HOKL 3ROLFH F\EHUFULPH FHOO
KDGRQO\WZRLQVSHFWRUVDVRI1RYHPEHU VHHKWWS ZZZKLQGXVWDQWLPHVFRP,QGLDQHZV1HZ'HOKL&\EHU
FULPHXSE\LQ&DSLWDO$UWLFOHDVS[ DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\ VHHDOVR.VKHWUL
19 6RPHFRXQWULHVKDYHDOUHDG\PRGLƄHGWKHLUGRPHVWLFOHJLVODWLRQLQOLQHZLWKWKHVXEVWDQWLYHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH(&&
IRUH[DPSOH6LQJDSRUHDQG$XVWUDOLDtWKHODWWHUQRWEHLQJ\HWD6WDWHSDUW\WRWKH(&&
5HFRPPHQGDWLRQRIWKH&RXQFLOFRQFHUQLQJ*XLGHOLQHVIRU3URWHFWLQJ&RQVXPHUVIURP)UDXGXOHQWDQG'HFHSWLYH
&RPPHUFLDO 3UDFWLFHV $FURVV %RUGHUV 5HFRPPHQGDWLRQ RI WKH &RXQFLO RQ &URVVERUGHU &RRSHUDWLRQ RQ WKH
(QIRUFHPHQWRI/DZV$JDLQVW6SDP 5HFRPPHQGDWLRQRIWKH&RXQFLORQWKH&RQVXPHU'LVSXWH5HVROXWLRQDQG
5HGUHVV DQG5HFRPPHQGDWLRQRIWKH&RXQFLORQ&RQVXPHU3ROLF\'HFLVLRQ0DNLQJ
6HHKWWS XQFWDGRUJ6HFWLRQVGLWFBFFSEGRFV81*&3B'UDIW5HSRUWBHQSGI DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\
6HHZZZHLQVWLWXWRRUJ DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\
6
STRATEGY AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
As the digital economy expands and more and more business activities are affected, strategies which enable companies across different sectors and sizes to engage in e-commerce are becoming increasingly relevant. In this FRQWH[WDZHOOGHYHORSHGQDWLRQDOVWUDWHJ\PD\KHOSHQKDQFHWKHQHWEHQHƄWV
of e-commerce. Such a strategy needs to facilitate the ability of producers to sell online and of consumers and other buyers to purchase online. Effective national policies in areas such as ICT infrastructure development, logistics and trade facilitation, the legal and regulatory environment, e-procurement, e-payments, platforms, awareness-raising and skills development in combination with an enabling international environment are essential to enable domestic and cross-border e-commerce.
7KLV ƄQDO FKDSWHU ORRNV DW KRZ *RYHUQPHQWV LQ FROODERUDWLRQ ZLWK RWKHU
stakeholders, can help create an environment that is more conducive to UHDSLQJ EHQHƄWV IURP HFRPPHUFH WDNLQJ LQWR DFFRXQW ERWK RSSRUWXQLWLHV
and risks. Special attention is devoted to measures to facilitate the effective involvement of micro and small enterprises. In the second part of the chapter, WKHUROHRILQWHUQDWLRQDOSROLFLHVLQVHOHFWHGDUHDVLVEULHƅ\GLVFXVVHG