Anomalías del desarrollo gonadal (testículo)

One of the advantages of action research is that a variety of data collection methods can be employed depending on the organisational environment (Sankaran and Tay, 2003; Holter and Schwartz-Barcott, 1993). Elliott (1991) mentioned numerous techniques and methods to gather evidence in action research which are: diaries, profiles, document analysis, using an outside observer, interviewing, shadow study, checklists,

questionnaires, and analytic memos.

Within the study setting, methodological triangulation (Robson, 2002) was used to gather data under the action research model as an umbrella. Data collection was mostly qualitative, and there were some quantitative measurements included such as statistical measurement. The multiple collection instrument employed in the current study

included participant observation, indirect and informal internal and external interviews, documentary evidence, field diary and notes, social accounting and audit (SAA) model and basic statistical models. This section provides an explanation of the variety of data gathering methods and techniques that ensured reliability and validity. It also

demonstrates the relative advantages and disadvantages of the methods used in this study within the action research model.

3.5.1 Participant observation

In general, participant observation is a process that enables researchers to learn about the activities of participants in their natural setting through activity observation and participation in the day-to-day or routine activities (Kawulich, 2005).

For the purpose of the current study, participant observation methods are employed to diagnose, describe and explain the relevant facts of the situation that need to change or be improved upon. Thus, participant observation is used to identify and guide

communication with the case organisation; understand how things are organised and prioritised within the organisation. The method helps understand how people interrelate with the project and the cultural parameters that are known to the cultural members, leadership, politics and social interaction (Schensul, 1999).

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A number of strengths relating to participant observation are considered, in this study, these include access to the ‘backstage culture’ that provides a rich source of high

quality, detailed and in-depth knowledge of the situation. There is also an opportunity to collect different types of data that are gained after being part of the system and having the access to the inside. It also provides the environment for researchers to observe people’s behaviour, which allows researchers to understand the social pressure/ influences and a group norm (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2002).

In this study, participant observation is used alongside additional strategies such as unstructured interviewing, document analysis and questionnaire to increase the validity of the study (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2002). Likewise, in terms of observing/collecting relevant data, DeWalt and DeWalt (2002) recommend that events can be regular and irregular activities. The researcher should search for a variety of viewpoints to view the event as a whole as well as look for the negative or exceptional cases.

3.5.2 Indirect internal/external interview

An indirect/exploratory unstructured method13 of internal and external interview was employed in the present study, to gain an understanding of what had gone before in the history of the organisations’ engagement with key stakeholders. Patton (2002)

represented unstructured interviews as a ‘natural extension of participant observation’ fieldwork.

There were unstructured open questions to key stakeholders, in particular staff. These were conducted based on conversational/dialogue style that started with questions from the author during the course of formal meetings and/or informal conversations within the organisation. Open ended questions such as “what got them interested in social measurement and development of the social accounting?”, “what they had experienced so far and their thoughts and learning about the progress?” helped the researcher to develop a deeper understanding and to identify key aspects of the project. External interviews were organised where possible to gather information from similar

organisations which have implemented similar systems. In addition to all the above, external consultations conducted where possible within another similar organisation to maximise data.

13 _{In the literature, the following terms are used interchangeably: informal conversational interview, in}

90 3.5.3 Documentary evidence

Van der Waal (2009) claims that in organisational study a variety of data sources alongside what the organisation publishes, are important, these include the website and a range of documents (e.g., minutes, reports). In the current study, the documentary evidence method was utilised to collect data from these sources and helped establish prior knowledge background of the case organisation. The documentary evidence included policies, minutes of meetings, and clients’ paperwork.

3.5.4 Field diaries and note (Reflexive Journal)

The reflective diary kept during the fieldwork period helped the researcher (myself) keep a progress check on project (Symon, 2004). In addition, writing a reflective diary is used as an integral part of professional development of the author (Koshy, 2011). The aim of keeping a diary is to record significant events as well as the author’s feelings and experiences during observations and the research process itself. The advantage of keeping a field diary and notes, from meetings, was that it required the author to continually perform ‘reflective thinking’ (Schon, 2007). By documenting regularly the cycles of the research process, specific reflection on initial thoughts, assumptions, and experiences, significantly helped at crucial periods in the study and at the later stages when writing up the research (Van der Waal, 2009).

3.5.5 Social accounting and audit (SAA) model (Pearce and Key, 2008)

In this study, the social accounting and audit model (Pearce and Key, 2008) was a one method that began the first phase of the study. The first point of any action research is to diagnose the problem that needs to be changed or improved. Therefore, the first attempt was to trace the background information about the case organisation. The background study was inspired by the social accounting and audit process (Pearce and Kay, 2008) (Figure 7). The focus was on the case organisation’s current practice regarding outcome measurement movement, which is discussed in step one and two of the progress mapping by Pearce and Key (2008). The model also influenced the social accounting framework that was adopted by the case-organisation in a later cycle of the research.

In this research context, the process (Figure 7) includes four stages: (I) getting ready by understanding the organisation environment in regard to activities, management and resources; (II) making the foundation for the social accounting such as developing

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vision and mission, value, recognition of key stakeholders and setting up the objectives of the organisation; (III) preparation for outcome measurement in terms of data

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Figure 7- Social accounting progress mapping (Pearce and Kay, 2008)

The social accounting and auditing framework by Pearce and Key (2008) that

illustrates the process of outcome measurement and the production of social reports by an organisation.

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