Antecedentes en la Constitución de 1991

The axial coding process focussed on delineating a or phenomenum (such as obsessive behaviour), or a context (such as childhood experiences or socio­

historic antecedents), or a (such as psychopathology).

I ntense discussions with university professionals in both New Zealand and Australia occurred in deciding on some particular code groupings. For example the distinction between PERS (perseveration as an obsession) and AP (normal persistence) required much debate and reference to scientific literature. lt was eventually agreed that PERS or Perseveration is of an obsessive, habit-forming quality, often exhibited in later life long after its need still existed, while AP or persistence was simply the normal reaction to an obstacle and was essentially not habit-forming. Similarly humour as a Positive Emotion (E+), erraticness as a Mild Emotional response (EML) and restlessness as a Negative Emotion (E-) caused intense debate and literature search (see General Bibliography).

The completed Axial Coding system is now summarised in Appendix V.

C HA P T E R 5

C O D E G R O U P I N G OVE RVI EW

5. 1 INTRODUCTION TO CODE GROUPING

The plan for this chapter is to review the coded groupings individually and to justify their inclusion in the study from both scientific and biographical literature, together with perspectives drawn from the author's personal consulting experience.

In order to reflect the colour, variety and range of expression available from the biographical coding search, sample direct quotations were included from the personalities involved which give evidence for the psychological justification of codes. This simplified procedure appeared the only realistic action, given the large amount of data acquired over the three-year research program.

Clarity of reference suggests that code groupings be reviewed at the

commencement of each section following the summary set out earlier in Appendix v.

5.2 AXIAL CODE 1 - SOCIO-HISTORIC ANTECEDENTS

I) N-FACT Nationalism factor

11) REV _{Revolt against existing mores}

Ill) A-R _{Religious/Idealistic factor/Altruism/Philanthropy/Politics} IV) SCH Schools of Literature/Arts/Science Movements

'•

5 . 2 1 (i) N-FACT - NATIONALISM FACTOR

EXAMPLES:

France in 1 939 led the world in liberating atomic energy - Fn§deric Joliot-Curie. Biquard (1 965, p.56)

Forsyte fictional wealth and security represented British literature, science, religion and art - John Galsworthy. Du Pre (1 976, p. 1 1 5).

· Braids, gilt and epaulettes represented her fascination for things English - Gabrielle

Chanel, Charles-Roux (1 976, p. 1 5).

He represented Italian romantic nationalism - Arturo Toscanini, Sachs (1 978, p.8). The rise of Italian and Russian nationalism - Vaslav Nijinsky, Buckle (1 975, p. 1 0).

5.2 1 (11) CODE REV - REVOLT AGAINST EXISTING MORES

EXAMPLES:

"Developments in information theory suggest a revolution in the human way of life more profound than atomic theory" - Arthur C Clarke, McAieer (1 992, p . 1 1 3).

"I left my homeland because there were no opportunities in physiology in Australia" ­ Howard Florey, Bickel (1 972, p.4)

"Glitter was a reaction to childhood restraint. Mentally I'm 25; but half of me is still 1 3!" - Elton John, Norman (1 991 , p.206).

"A hatred of all that was false or pretentious" - Egon Schiele, Whitford (1 981 , p. 1 0).

DISCUSSION

Nationalism and Revolt have been linked as a single related entity. There is

reasonable observational historical evidence that nationalistic and idealistic factors prompt a direct influence on the emergence of original creative enterprise.

Furthermore revolt against established social order and the establishment of new themes is not uncommon in most significant domains of science, music, the arts, literature and commerce.

The influence of economic, political and social events on the rates of creative

production is commented on by Gruber (1 988), Harrington (1 990) and Magyari-Beck (1 988). Csikszentmihalyi also comments, "lt has become increasingly clear that variables external to the individual must be taken into account if one wishes to explain why and when new ideas or products arise from and become established in a culture" (Csikszentmihalyi and Getzels, 1 988, p. 31 3, as reported Sternberg

Handbook on Creativity 1 999.) A further striking example of the relationship between the influence of nationalistic forces and revolt is reported by Whitford (1 981 ) in the case history of successionist artist, Egon Schiele. Whitford suggests that members of turn-of-the-century Vienna coffee-houses included Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin and Leon Trotsky at the same time planning their political revolutions and theories in different cafes.

Other examples include Sigmund Freud in psychoanalysis, Arnold Schoenberg and Gustav Mahler in music, and Gustav Klimt in art; all members of the Vienna coffee house fraternity who were directly affected by the imminent collapse of the

comfortable, self-satisfied Austro-Hungarian world.

The most recent study of Vienna's coffee-houses as the seed-bed of revolt and the resurgence of various nationalistic ideals, is by Hamann (1 999), entitled "Hitler's Vienna - A Dictator's Apprenticeship" where she describes the unglamorous anti­ modernist underside of Vienna - the unemployed, the disadvantaged ·and the marginalised, whose ranks from 1 908 - 1 91 3 included the young drop-out and social nonentity, Adolf Hitler.

The attraction of the coffee-house as both an entertainment centre and a facilitator of social and cultural revolt spread throughout Europe but was particularly strong in Vienna and Paris during this period. The writer, Gustave Coquiot (as reported by Jane Kinsman, 1 997, p.24) wrote that this form of social contact and entertainment struck a particular chord with the French. He wrote in 1 896 that the cafe was a feature of everyday life that appeared everywhere to satisfy everyone's needs and to so fulfil their social role with a truly rare degree of suitability. The cafe required neither etiquette nor elegance in attire or appearance, and appealed to partisans of those special delights enjoyed between a pipe and a tankard.

Numerous other examples of the nationalism/revolt synergy exist in the biographical literature. Tchaikovsky's musical background was directly influenced by his revolt against Russian repression of the liberal arts: Alexander Solzhenitsyn in literature and Dmitri Shostakovich, Alfred Schnittke and Bela Bartok in music were all directly influenced to produce their creative outpourings by the Russian revolution and the subsequent communist era.

You may finally ask how strongly the present French military justice ethos would appear without J'Accuse by Emile Zola, or Victorian social distress would be recorded for posterity without Charles Dickens, 0/iver Twist or Hard Times.

Biographical evidence suggests that socio-economic history, revolution and creative enterprise are bound together in both history and psychobiography.

5 . 2 1 -(111) CODE A-R RELIGIOUS I IDEALISTIC FACTOR I AL TRUISM I PHILANTHROPY EXAMPLES:

"My parents .were strong supporters of communism" - Alfred Schnittke, lvashkin (1 996, p. 1 8)

"I have a certain political view of the world " - Jules Verne, Chesneaux (1 972, p. 1 9) "Business is a holy enterprise" - Konosuke Matsushita, PHP Institute (1 998, p.200)

DISCUSSION

Idealistic and religious factors are similarly allied with original creative enterprise in the summarised coded antecedents. There exist numerous examples of this crucial relationship, especially in science and commerce.

Australian ophthalmologist, Fred Hollows, shocked at the prevalence of aboriginal eye disease; founded the National Trachoma and Eye Health Program _serving over 400 needy aboriginal communities.

Louis Pasteur's control of animal anthrax was motivated by the loss of some 30 million Francs per annum due to the prevalence of this disease in France. Linus Pauling, famous for his molecular theories and winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1 954, redirected his motivations to preventing the spread of nuclear armaments and gained a second Nobel Prize for Peace in 1 962.

Commercial enterprise has also witnessed similar national and idealistic

relationships between the emergence of novel concepts and personalities involved in this thesis.

Japanese entrepreneur Konosuke Matsushita regarded the development of his electronic business as a sacred duty for Japan and saw national prosperity as an economic battlefield. Kokichi Mikimoto dedicated his search for the perfect cultured pearl to the people of Japan. lt is reported that he took 850 000 oysters apart until he discovered the perfect pearl and the technology behind its production around January 1 908.

In his subsequent meeting with the Emperor he promised "I will produce round pearls and I will give Japan a great industry, growing enough pearls to sell to all the rest of the world". (Eunson, 1 956, p. 1 38).

From Great Britain the biographies of Andrew Carnegie and Jesse Boot continue to illustrate the relationship between idealism and original creative enterprise. Andrew Carnegie, as the son of a poverty-stricken weaver in Dunfermline, Scotland,

resolved to "cure poverty when he became man", and after successfully founding and selling his Carnegie Steel Company for US$480 million continued his basic philanthropic theme by the donation and administration of his wealth to universities,

free libraries, hospitals and the promotion of young achievers. In total he donated US$1 25 million to such causes (Wall, 1 970, p. 1 04 1 ).

Jesse Boot regarded religion as an essential part of his life and believed in folk medicines, the foundation of his proprietary chemist enterprise, as a Christian service (Chapman, 1 974).

Finally, Albert Einstein's search for the laws relating energy to mass, reported that he wished to know "God's Thoughts" (Brian, 1 996).

5 . 2 1 -(IV) CODE SCH - SCHOOLS OF LITERATURE I ARTS I SCIENCE MOVEMENTS EXAMPLES:

The beginning of the Bloomsbury Period (1 907) - Virginia Woolf, Bell (1 973, p. 1 23) A member of young intellectuals at University - Alexander Solzhenitsyn .• Burg (1 973, p. 5 1 )

Decadence i s a restless curiosity; a n ever-subtle refinement and moral perversity ­ Aubrey Beardsley, Sturgis (1 998, p. 1 66)

He was the foremost Impressionist and laid the foundation of Cubism -Paul Cezanne, Kendall (1 988, p.8)

DISCUSSION

Grouping literature, arts and sciences together in 'schools' is the final antecedent condition in the review of factors influencing the emanation of works of original enterprise productions.

This thesis could either interpret the grouping together of arts and literature schools as antecedent conditions behind creative output, or alternatively regard the

dominant personalities recorded as the originators of such schools.

A symbiotic relationship between antecedents and the personalities involved is the correct position in this quandary. However, the role of influences in arts on each other and their social intertwining does suggest supportive evidence for the antecedent conditions which stimulated styles of art and directly influenced their creative production. Briefly summarised are firstly role influences as recorded on ten

fin-de-siecle artists and secondly evidence for close social interchange.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON NOTED ARTISTS ARTIST Pablo Picasso Oskar Kokoschka Toulouse Lautrec Edouard Manet Gustave Courbet Claude Monet Amedeo Modigliani Egon Schiele Vincent Van Gogh Gauguin

DIRECTLY I NFLUENCED BY