ANTECEDENTES DEL PROBLEMA

There were separate measures for each type of action or behaviour, which provide the means to measure: Visual Attention (research question B, A, H1)

Motivation (responsiveness), (research question B, H2)

The counter

measures the time to the hundredths of seconds

Stress and boredom (engagement), (research question B, C, H3)

The coding requires the use of the jog shuttle control2 to determine the onset of the observed events. The onset in this investigation is defined as the time recorded on the counter to the hundredths of a second (see above).

The coding scheme included:

Visual Attention

Measured by the amount of looking action (see below), by measuring the length of time spent looking at the computer screen (how long the computer program holds the child’s visual attention).

Visual Attention Coding Scheme; form 1 (see observer user guide appendix L and below).

The coders view the video recording and note the length of time (duration) for which the participant looks at the computer screen (either with or without the participant touching the computer screen). The looking event begins (the onset) when the participant looks at the computer screen for more than 2 seconds (continuously) and ends (offset) when the participant looks away for more than 2 seconds. Two seconds was employed to give sufficient time for the behaviour or action to be recorded.

Motivation

Motivation is measured in terms of the child touching the interface in response to a prompt or command by the interface or a prompt by a facilitator3 and the computer program prompts. The response is measured in terms of the frequency of touching the computer screen by the children in response to prompt vs. spontaneously touching the interface.

Touching actions are subdivided into three parts, three of which are the functions of the different types of prompt:

 Touching the computer screen in response to a physical prompt (involves the assistants taking the participant’s hand and placing it on the computer screen).

 Touching the computer screen in response to a verbal prompt by the classroom assistant; for example, words of encouragement or positive feedback (such as ‘try again’, ‘again’, etc).

 The touching of the computer screen in response to the computer program prompts (involves the computer verbally encouraging the child to touch the computer screen or a change in the interface; such as the page changing to the next page).

The last measure in the touching condition is spontaneous touching, which is measured by the touching of the computer screen without any prompting.

2

The jog shuttle control is an electronic device used to control the video recording; it is especially useful for viewing a video recording frame by frame.

3

The motivation coding scheme (see above)

In form 2 (see appendix L and below), the children’s actions (touching the computer screen) are defined as being accompanied by neutral, positive, or negative affects, besides the different types of prompt. A neutral affect is when a child displays no expression, a positive affect is when a child displays positive expressions (such as smiling) and a negative affect is defined when a child vocalises a complaint or performs actions such as hitting the computer screen, self harm, etc.

Stress and Boredom (engagement)

Stress and Boredom (engagement) measures the duration of any stress and boredom in the session coded.

Stress and Boredom (engagement) coding scheme (as above)

Form 3 (see appendix L and below) reports the duration for which the children display behaviour such as vocalisation, hand flapping, negative affects or hitting his/her head, as measures of stress or boredom, (all typical for ASD children, as attested by Frith (1989)) and hence disengagement from the learning experience.

Further details about the coding strategy

Every time there was an action, this was coded. There were two types of measure in the coding scheme for momentary events, frequency (touching the screen), and duration events (measuring the length of time

between the onset and offset of an action e.g. looking at the screen). If two or more actions occur [for example: 1 attention, 2 motivation, 3 engagement], they are all coded. In other words, the coding scheme categories applied are mutually exclusive; which suggests that they are coded in only one of the three forms employed (see appendix L). The frequency of touching and looking at the screen (behaviour) may occur simultaneously. (For the forms used for the coding, see appendix L, and appendix P for a sample of a completed coding form).

The Observation Coding Guide

The observation coding guide is designed to facilitate the coding of the video recording. The document is divided into two sections (the general coding procedure and the coding procedure specific to the measure being coded). The document provides a guide to the coding process, giving details about how each aspect of the coding schemes should be applied. The guide begins with a general coding procedure, which applies to all three behaviours: measured visual attention, motivation and boredom and stress (engagement). All

behaviours are mutually exclusive within each form. To ensure the reliability of the coding, a secondary coding was conducted by a second coder (see the reliability section below).

The general coding procedure

 The timing for the action commenced within two seconds from the start of an action, such as touching the computer screen; this was done to give adequate time for an action to commence before it is recorded, as well as to ensure the accuracy of all actions measured. This is classified as the ‘onset’ or start of any action and 2 seconds ‘look away’ time is classified as the end of the action.

 The coding of the recording should be done frame by frame for the ‘look ‘action to ensure that both observers are viewing the same action.

 To minimise the problem of discrepancies caused by obstruction and visibility problems, the screen with the timer is the main screen used but, in the case of obstruction (limited vision); the second screen is used, although the time shown on the main screen was always the one used.

 Record at the bottom of each form the screen employed to code the recording.

 Turning the screen on and off (even when the child is looking at it) should not be counted as an action.

 The coding of each form should be made using normal play, slow play or as necessary, to facilitate accurate timing.

Screen 1 is the screen without the timer, whilst screen 2 has the timer displayed beneath it.

Coding steps for visual engagement (form 1):

ii. Play the tape, pausing where looking occurs. ii. Record the duration of looking.

iii. Onset begins after 2 seconds and offset after 2 seconds.

Coding steps for motivation (form 2):

ii. Play the tape, pausing where touching occurs. ii. Record the exact time of the touching.

iii. A positive affect is when the child smiles.

Procedural guidelines

An action (touching) accompanied by a positive affect should be coded. A positive affect is when the child is smiling or not showing signs of displeasure (such as crying).

Explaining the various prompts

A physical prompt can be the child guiding the hand of the assistant to the computer screen (this will include the assistant touching the computer screen without talking to the child). Verbal prompts are words of

encouragement. A computer prompt is the computer verbally prompting the child or a change in the interface (such as the page changing to the next page). A spontaneous prompt is any other prompt that is present.

Coding steps for boredom and stress (form 3):

ii. Play the tape, pausing where incidents of negative behaviour occur. ii. Record the exact time of the behaviour observed.

iii. Onset begins after 2 seconds and offset after 2 seconds.

Actions explained

Flapping of hands, covering of the ears with the hand(s) and other repetitive hand movements Continuous vocalisation (making small or loud sounds or crying)

Negative affects (include actions, such as self harm, continuous hitting of the head with the hand, covering the ears with the hands, and facial expression, such as frowning, turning the computer monitor on or off and chewing on objects or clothing).

Reliability

The reliability of the coding system is crucial to the success of the observation method, due to the fact that it provides an avenue for determining the accuracy of the phenomena being observed and the replication of the coding process, as proposed by Bakeman and Gottman (1987). To ensure that the phenomenon coded is objective and repeatable, the Kappa agreement technique was employed (ibid). This technique was applied, comparing the coding of the two observers of 20% of the data (as is the convention). The average inter- observer agreement was computed at 93% (see appendix G) for verifying the coding observation videos. This indicated a reliable, high level of consistency between the two coders. Lessons were learnt from embarking on this venture, especially in the modification of the observed coding scheme (discussed above).