CAPITULO I: MARCO TEÓRICO DE LA INVESTIGACION
1.4 Antecedentes del Estudio
4 Contextual influences
4.1 Abstract
4Residential energy efficiency interventions are complex social and construction programs that may benefit health, yet the interactions between the material improvements, health and health related outcomes, and householder responses are not well understood. While indoor winter warmth and householder satisfaction have been identified as the key mediators for physiological, mental and social health outcomes, this paper explores how programme contexts may have influenced the outcomes. This review revealed that common target populations were low‐income households, children and the elderly. The review found that people’s expectations and culturally constructed heating practices influenced indoor temperatures and householder satisfaction. Very deprived households were still affected by financial constraints despite the intervention measures. Excessive ventilation and limited technical mastery counteracted the beneficial effects of the intervention measures. Poor workmanship and ineffective handover undermined energy consumption objectives and led to householder dissatisfaction. Effective intervention design should address householder needs and the program’s socio‐cultural context.
4.2 Introduction
Residential energy efficiency interventions (REEIs) are located at the intersection of social equity, public health and climate change mitigation policies. In developed countries, the heating of homes contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (IEA 2013; UNEP SBCI 2009), yet adequate heating may be compromised by poor building quality and the affordability of fuel with potentially adverse impacts on health (Boardman 1993; Healy 2003b). At the intersection of climate change mitigation as an opportunity for health (Wang, H & Horton 2015), and housing quality as a determinant of health (Bambra et al. 2010; WHO 2011b), there has been an increased interest in better understanding the co‐benefits of housing retrofits for the planet and the people (Bambra et al. 2010; Boardman 1993; Healy 2003b; IEA 2013; Marmot Review Team 2011; OECD 2003; UNEP SBCI 2009; Wang, H & Horton 2015; WHO 2011b). Although past reviews synthesising the evidence of health impacts of REEIs suggest a possible health benefit (Liddell & Morris 2010; Maidment et al.
4 Image: (Boag ca. 1871)
43 2013; Thomson, Petticrew & Morrison 2001; Thomson et al. 2013), researchers have called for more studies that explore the pathways and contextual issues of improved residential energy efficiency and health before a general claim of causality can be made (Gibson et al. 2011; Howden‐Chapman &
Chapman 2012; Thomson et al. 2009). At the same time, interest in the householder experience of home energy conservation improvements and intervention programme processes is growing (Brown, P, Swan & Chahal 2014; Judson & Maller 2014; Matheson, Dew & Cumming 2009). Hence, this article complements a recent exploration of the pathways from residential energy efficiency interventions to health (Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015) by focusing on the contextual mechanisms that seem to explain the variability of outcomes in published intervention studies.(Brown, P, Swan &
Chahal 2014; Judson & Maller 2014; Matheson, Dew & Cumming 2009; Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015)
Residential energy efficiency interventions aim for mathematically predicted reductions in energy consumption and improvements in indoor environments based on planned changes in the thermal quality of the building envelope, the efficiencies of the space conditioning system and assumed occupant behaviours. However, paradoxical and surprising findings, ‘unresolved conundrums’
(Green & Gilbertson 2008) and ‘deviant cases’ (Heyman et al. 2005) attest to the fact that it is difficult to plan or control householder behaviour and that additional variables need to be
considered in explaining outcomes. In response to these observations the realist approach was used to review studies on residential energy efficiency improvement programs.
Realist review is a new method of synthesising intervention literature for the purpose of informing evidence‐based policies around complex social interventions. The underlying theory, as developed and advocated by Ray Pawson and his colleagues (Pawson 2013; Pawson et al. 2005; Pawson & Tilley 1997), is grounded in the science of evaluations (Astbury 2013; Hansen, HF 2005). The realist review recognises the complexity of social programs and tries to elucidate the interdependence of the content, the context and the outcomes of interventions. Conventional syntheses, using results models of evaluation, seek to provide a verdict on the effectiveness of a type of intervention. By contrast, using programme and middle range theory models, realist reviews aim to provide
explanations why some interventions seem to have worked better or worse than others (Pawson et al. 2005). The benefit of a realist review lies in its practical objective. By articulating the mechanisms that determine the success or failure of interventions, the realist review aims to support decision makers in designing effective intervention programs (Pawson et al. 2005).
Realist reviews are rooted in the theoretical perspective of critical realism and in the pragmatist epistemological stance (Wong et al. 2013b). Critical realism is the perception that the subject that is studied, hence the effect of the improvement of the building’s energy efficiency, may appear as something that exists independently of human influence and that should be regarded objectively, but that is really ambiguous and dynamic due to the social context and human interaction and influenced by the researcher’s interpretation (Barnett‐Page & Thomas 2009). Researcher that call for the adoption of a critical realistic stance (Allen 2000; Muntaner 2013; O’Campo & Dunn 2012;
Wainwright, SP & Forbes 2000) posit that an evaluation of housing improvements and health needs to bridge both measurable and interpretative outcomes, acknowledging the value of the experiences and responses of householders, as “quantitative data can only render an imperfect or partial picture of health effects and their cause” (Brown, P 2003, p. 1789). Hence, the pragmatist takes the view point that knowledge is relative to the objective, context and circumstance of the enquiry (McCaslin
& Given 2008) to gain a deeper understanding of “what works for whom, in what circumstances, in what respects and how” (Pawson et al. 2005, p. 21). Rather than offering ‘cookie‐cutter’ solutions, realist reviews aim to provide a better understanding of the underlying factors and processes that
44 seem to have influenced the outcomes of interventions in the shape of hypotheses that may be tested in further research. In addition, if appropriate, realist reviews seek to provide
recommendations for more effective research and programme evaluations as well as for policy makers and programme designers, who are aiming to tailor their interventions for maximum effectiveness (Yassi et al. 2013).
The principal question for the review was: How can health outcomes from REEIs best be explained?
The review started with an exploration of the hypothetical framework (Pawson et al. 2005) of the relationship between REEIs and health and resulted in a cross‐program comparison of the mediating factors and health outcomes along the posited pathways (Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015). This second part of the review aimed to better understand how program contexts seem to have
supported, modified or contradicted the intended pathways. The objective was to provide potential explanations for the diversity of outcomes in REEIs. The knowledge gained was to be used for recommendations for more effective intervention designs.
4.3 Method
Using a systematic, yet iterative, process, 73 documents referring to 28 intervention programs in seven countries were selected for review. The focus was on retrofits, upgrade and refurbishment interventions. Please refer to the ‘pathways paper’ for a detailed description of the literature search and review method (Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015). As the key feature of a realist review lies in its
“explanatory rather than judgmental focus” (Pawson et al. 2005, p. 21), the realist review approach respects and acknowledges the legitimacy of quantitative and qualitative studies, of grey and peer‐
reviewed sources. Hence, the selection of the documents was on the basis of their relevance in contributing to the research question, credibility and trustworthiness (Wong et al. 2013b).
The ‘pathways paper’ (Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015) focused on program theories, on the expected functioning of interventions and the unintended or unforeseen processes that led to favourable or unfavourable outcomes (Jagosh et al. 2011). The paper categorised the structural improvements contained in the programmes into thermal retrofits (that is, measures to reduce the heat loss through the building envelope), upgrades (that is, the installation of a more efficient heating
system), refurbishments (that is, the combination of thermal retrofits and upgrade), and low carbon refurbishments (that is, refurbishments that included the use of renewable energy systems). By examining the pathways of REEI’s towards physiological, mental and social health outcomes, the paper showed that the key mediating factors to better health were the provision of better indoor winter warmth and enhanced satisfaction with the home. Improvements in the affordability of fuel were shown to be of lesser importance to mental health outcomes than expected by researchers.
The findings that outcomes were not always related to the scope of the measures suggested that householder behaviour and contextual factors may have played a significant role in the impacts of the structural changes (Willand, Ridley & Maller 2015).
This ‘contexts paper’ concentrates on the context‐mechanism‐outcome nexus and the identification of demi‐regularities. In realist reviews, demi‐regularities are recurrent context‐mechanism‐outcome patterns that hypothesise why interventions in particular settings may be effective (Jagosh et al.
2011). Informed by the middle range, or explanatory theory of residential energy consumption and conceiving comfort as a social practice as described in theories of social practices (for example:
Chappells & Shove 2005; Gram‐Hanssen 2011; Guy & Shove 2000; Hitchings 2013)( ), the present review addresses the contexts in which the intervention programmes were applied and their influences on the health and mediating outcomes of the studies. The review undertook a cross‐
45 program analysis to identify if and how idiosyncrasies of the target groups, certain components of the program design and delivery or wider social, cultural and economic issues interacted with the intervention and moderated the programs’ outcomes. In the selected literature, brief descriptions of the householder demographic situations were common, yet information on the householder
experiences and the program delivery was scarce. Qualitative information on the contextual influences of outcomes was often confined to low‐profile companion papers that were found through searching the cited‐by sections of the high‐profile publications. Common themes and paradoxes that promised to enhance the understanding of the observed phenomena were noted.
Discussions with the PhD supervisors and revisits of the selected studies were critical in inferring meanings. Purposive searches for complementary information were undertaken to elucidate
emerging findings and to support interpretations of the data. Table 3 to Table 7 provide an overview of the program names, associated studies, characteristics and relevant findings.
46 Table 3 Summary of retrofit programs with country of origin and associated studies, funding of the interventions, target groups and relevant main findings.
Studies on the program Intervention category ‐ Funding of intervention
Population groups; participants Relevance and main findings
Iversen, Bach & Lundqvist 1986 Thermal retrofit ‐ By landlords
Medium social class households, 106 in intervention, 535 in control group.
Benefits in thermal comfort and rheumatic symptoms
El Ansari & El‐Silimy 2008 (England) Thermal retrofit ‐ Government grants
Elderly (65+), about half public housing tenants; 12.000 + homes
No effect on excess winter deaths
Howden‐Chapman et al. 2004, Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2005, Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007, Howden‐Chapman et al.
2009, Chapman et al. 2009, Matheson, Dew & Cumming 2009, Chapman, Howden‐Chapman & O’Dea 2004
Thermal retrofit ‐ free to householders (government +
privately funded)
Predominantly low‐income households, about half of indigenous background; about 4,400 participants; 12% public housing, 76%
owner‐occupied homes
Warmer indoor temperatures and reduced fuel costs; better thermal comfort,
respiratory and general health
Taroona house inexpensive retrofit ‐ Australia
Weaver 2004a, 2004b Thermal retrofit ‐ City Council
One low income, council tenant family Better thermal comfort, small energy savings, better health of children and adults
Lloyd, CR et al. 2008 Thermal retrofit ‐ Free to householders
Low income social housing tenants in 100 dwellings
Small rise in temperatures but homes still very cold
Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d, 2009e
Thermal retrofit ‐ Not reported
436 households in intervention and control groups; mostly non‐employed elderly participants, tenants and owner‐occupiers
Improved affordability of fuel; improved general, cardiovascular health and rheumatic symptoms; benefits also in
control group
Johnson & Sullivan 2011; Johnson, Sullivan & Totty 2013
Thermal retrofit ‐ Free service
Low income participants; 85 people pre, 58 post, plus 33 in focus groups
Fewer draughts, mixed health outcomes Summary of intervention programs and their location, publications, participants and relevant main findings ‐ Retrofits
Danish double glazed window retrofit ‐ Denm
Warm Zone pilot ‐ UK
Housing Insulation and Health Study (HIHS) – New Zealand
Housing New Zealand Corporation( HNZC) 'Energy Efficiency Retrofit Program’ – New Zealand
Warmer Homes Scheme ‐ Ireland
Warm Home Cool Home (WHCH) ‐ Australia
47
Table 4 Summary of upgrade programs with country of origin and associated studies, funding of the interventions, target groups and relevant main findings.
Studies on the program Intervention category ‐ Funding of intervention
Population groups; participants Relevance and main findings
Mackenzie & Somerville 2000;
Somerville et al. 2000
Upgrade ‐ Free to householders
72 children of school age with moderate to severe asthma
First study to show reduction in asthma symptoms
Hopton & Hunt 1996 Upgrade ‐ Paid by social housing provider; rent increase in exchange for
heating costs
251 children (adult health was studied but not reported)
Better thermal comfort; prevention of deterioration rather than improvement of
health
Armstrong, Winder & Wallis 2006;
Rudge & Winder 2002
Upgrade ‐ Free for householders
102 social housing tenants aged over 70 More even temperatures throughout home
Basham et al. 2004 Upgrade ‐ Riviera Housing Trust, Teignbridge Council
36, presumably low income householders in their own homes, predominantly over 55
years.
Warmer and drier homes linked to psycho‐
social benefits
Boulic et al. 2008; Free et al. 2010;
Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2009; Pierse et al. 2013;
Preval et al. 2010; Yodying &
Phipatanakul 2009
Upgrade ‐ Free to householders (government
and privately funded)
Households of diverse incomes; 409 children aged 6‐12 with newly doctor‐
diagnosed asthma
Reduced asthma symptoms linked to warmer bedrooms
Summary of intervention programs and their location, publications, participants and relevant main findings ‐ Upgrades
Housing, Heating and Health Study (HHHS) – New Zealand Cornwall Intervention Study ‐ UK
'Heat with Rent' scheme ‐ UK
Lambeth Study: Heating and Well‐being in Older People ‐ UK
Riviera Housing Trust and Teignbridge Council housing study ‐ UK
48 Table 5 Summary of refurbishment programs with country of origin and associated studies, funding of the interventions, target groups and relevant main findings.
Studies on the program Intervention category ‐ Funding of intervention
Population groups; participants Relevance and main findings
Green et al. 2000 Refurbishment ‐ Free to
householders
Lower income working‐class tenants, about half elderly
Largest rise in indoor temperatures of all studies; reduction of dampness, improvement in physical role and energy/vitality but not in emotional role
scores Nottingham Energy Housing and Health study ‐ UK
Howard & Critchley 2000; Pretlove et al.
2002
Refurbishment ‐ Free to householders
Public housing tenants, 12 adults, 11 children.
Better self‐reported comfort and subjective health; inefficient use of technology
Barton et al. 2007; Basham 2003;
Richardson et al. 2006; Somerville et al.
2002
Refurbishment ‐ Free to householder
Social renters; 481 adults and children, only 2% over 65 years in intervention group
Warmer bedrooms and more even temperatures throughout the home, but no
direct reflection in general health scores Scottish Executive Central Heating Programme (CHP) ‐UK
Platt et al. 2007; Sheldrick & Hepburn 2006, 2007; Walker et al. 2009
Refurbishment ‐ Free to householders
Social housing tenants and elderly home owners; 1281 recipients/ 1084 comparison
adults, mean age of respondents was 60.4 years
Benefits in condensation, dampness and mould, but no clear direct benefits for health
Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008 Refurbishment ‐ Not reported. Presumably free to
householder
Socio‐economic background not reports; 220 intervention/ 155 control group residents;
13% children, 60% adults, 27% seniors
Better thermal comfort, weak benefits in cold‐
related symptoms and general health
Wilson et al. 2014 Refurbishment ‐ Free to householder
Lower income participants; 248 adults, 75 children. Mean age over 50 years
Improvements in thermal comfort, general health, sinusitis, hypertension
Noris, Delp et al. 2013; Noris, Adamkiewicz et al. 2013
Refurbishment ‐ Presumably free to householder
Low‐income populations; at least 17 participants
Overall better indoor air quality Sheffield Study ‐ UK
Watcombe Housing Project ‐ UK
Summary of intervention programs and their location, publications, participants and relevant main findings ‐ Refurbishments
US Weatherization Assistance Program and Chicago Energy Savers Program
Apartment Retrofit for Energy and Indoor Environmental Quality ‐ USA WHO Frankfurt housing intervention project
49
Table 6 Summary of purposive refurbishment programs with country of origin and associated studies, funding of the interventions, target groups and relevant main findings.
Studies on the program Intervention category ‐ Funding of intervention
Population groups; participants Relevance and main findings
Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004;
Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2006; Shortt
& Rugkåsa 2007
Purposive refurbishment ‐ Presumably free to
householder
Old, disabled, infirmed, low income families and children; pre 378/ post 245 questionnaires; 80% owner‐occupied
Better control of indoor temperatures, benefits in comfort and satisfaction
Harrington et al. 2005; Heyman, Bob et al. 2011; Heyman, B. et al. 2005
Purposive refurbishment ‐ Free for householders
129 intervention, 108 control households living in full or marginal fuel poverty; 30
interviews
Warmer living rooms in the evenings, but no decrease in fuel, no clear benefits on health
Critchley et al. 2007; Gilbertson et al.
2006; Green & Gilbertson 2008; Hong et al. 2009; Hong, Oreszczyn & Ridley 2006; Hong et al. 2004; Hutchinson et al. 2006; Oreszczyn, Hong et al. 2006;
Oreszczyn, Ridley et al. 2006; Wilkinson et al. 2005
Purposive refurbishment ‐ Government grants
Private renters and owner‐occupiers; low income households; 2685 quantitatively
researched/ 49 in qualitative study
Most comprehensive set of variables and analyses of pathways; direct benefit only on
mental health.
Osman et al. 2008a; Osman et al. 2010;
Osman et al. 2008b
Purposive refurbishment ‐ Government grants or low
interest loans
Patients with clinically‐diagnosed moderate‐
to‐severe COPD, with hospital admission within previous two years, owner‐occupiers and social housing tenants; at the end of the study 25 in intervention, 9 in control group
Benefits in respiratory health may have been due to more even, rather than higher
temperatures
Warm Up New Zealand: Heat Smart (WUNZ:HS) Programme – New Zealand Grimes et al. 2012; Grimes et al. 2011a,
2011b; Telfar‐Barnard et al. 2011
Purposive refurbishment ‐ Governmental subsidies
General population without income or health restrictions; almost a million people,
about a tenth in treatment group
Reduced winter energy consumption, reduced mortality from circulatory diseases Summary of intervention programs and their location, publications, participants and relevant main findings ‐ Purposive refurbishments
Armagh and Dungannon Health Action Zone (ADHAZ); "Home is where the heat is" ‐ Ireland
Warm Homes Project ‐ UK
Warm Front Scheme ‐ UK
The Home Environment and Respiratory Health Study (HEARTH) ‐ UK
50
Table 7 Summary of low carbon refurbishment programs with country of origin and associated studies, funding of the interventions, target groups and relevant main findings.
Studies on the program Intervention category ‐ Funding of intervention
Population groups; participants Relevance and main findings
Lloyd, EL et al. 2008 Low carbon refurbishment ‐ Grant
Presumably low income apartment dwellers;
at end of study information from 27 recipients and 9 control group participants
Reduction of heating costs; fall of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and better
subjective general health
Enterprise Green Communities 'Healthy Housing' ‐ USA
Breysse et al. 2011 Low carbon refurbishment ‐ Free to householders
Low‐income families, largely immigrants or of minority racial or ethnic background in
60 apartments
Largest drop in energy use of all studies;
improvements in general and respiratory health of adults and children
Sharpe 2013 Low carbon refurbishment ‐
Free to householders (presumably, as social
housing)
Social housing tenants in 5 dwellings Overheating, energy wastage and risk of unhealthy indoor air quality due to
inefficient technology
Jacobs et al. 2014 Low carbon refurbishment ‐ Not reported. Presumably by
landlord
Very low income families, 27 adults and 31 children at follow up
Reduction of fuel costs and Improvements in dampness and general health
‘Heatfest' intervention study, Glasgow ‐ UK
Adaptive rehabilitation of Scottish tenement
Enterprise Green Communities and LEED low‐income refurbishment ‐ USA
Summary of intervention programs and their location, publications, participants and relevant main findings ‐ Low carbon refurbishments
51
4.4 Results
In keeping with the realist review approach, the findings reflect the context – mechanism – outcome
In keeping with the realist review approach, the findings reflect the context – mechanism – outcome