Antecedentes históricos del proceso de educación en valores en Cuba

While the current study added valuable information to the research of psychopathic sexual offenders, it does not come without limitations. One limitation is that the current study did not directly measure negative emotionality. As previously mentioned, it was suggested that a common factor between sexual offenders' intimacy deficits, loneliness and alcohol abuse is negative emotionality. However, none of the psychometric tests in the current study measured emotionality or coping styles.

The study of recidivism of sexual offenders remains unclear, as they have an unusually low base rate of reoffending (Abracen & Looman, 2004). The degree to which sexual offenders re-offend sexually may help explain why the omnibus test with just sexual recidivism as the event, was not significant. Studies have demonstrated that during a follow-up period of four to five years, only 13% of sexual offenders reoffended sexually (Hanson & Bussière, 1998). Previous studies have also demonstrated that sexual offenders are more likely to commit a nonsexual crime after being released than another sexual crime (Hanson & Bussiere, 1998). Persistent sexual offenders partake in a variety of criminal activity and do not commit sexual offenses exclusively (Lussier, LeBlanc & Proulx, 2005). Quinsey et al. (2006) suggested that violent recidivism should be used as the dependent measure when observing the recidivism of sexual offenders. The study explained that using violent recidivism instead of sexual recidivism would encompass all violent criminal acts whether it is sexual or not in nature. Using violent recidivism as the dependent would allow better accuracy and increases the base rate of

offending. Sexual offenses may also be prosecuted as violent offenses for a variety of reasons. By using violent recidivism as the dependent variable, crimes of sexual nature that were pleaded down to violent crime would be included. Using violent recidivism including sexual recidivism

was employed in the current research and produced significant results. The rate of sexual reoffending in the current sample remained mostly consistent with other research including sexual offenders in a treatment program (Looman et al., 2000).

The current study observed the PCL-R within a sample of moderate to high-risk sexual offenders but only in terms of the PCL-R total score. There have been mixed results in previous research as to significant differences between the predictive ability for recidivism of PCL-R Factor 1 and Factor 2 scores. (Hawes et al., 2013). In terms of sexual recidivism, a meta-analysis demonstrated that Factor 2 (d=0.44) was a better predictor of sexual recidivism compared to Factor 1, which was not a significant predictor of sexual recidivism (Hawes et al., 2013). However, Olver and Wong (2003) found that Factor 1 was more correlated with sexual recidivism than Factor 2 in a sample of 113 sexual offenders. The current study might have benefited from looking at different Factors and even Facets to determine if one section of the PCL-R was a better predictor of recidivism in a moderate to high-risk sexual offender

population.

Although the current study has added additional research using well-validated methods to measure drug abuse, the DAST does not measure the type of drug being abused(Abracen et al., 2008; Baltieri & Guerra de Andrade, 2008). For instance, studies have demonstrated that consuming drugs like alcohol and amphetamines might enhance aggression, cocaine might induce sexual exhilaration and LSD reduce sexual inhibition (Kalant, 1973). Contrary to the above drugs, consuming narcotics like heroin have been observed to reduce sexual interest and potency. Langevin and Lang (1990) observed the mood of sexual offenders who consumed drugs. They indicated that the majority of offenders associated positive affect while using

alcohol and amphetamines were mostly associated with hostile feelings (Langevin and Lang, 1990). Offenders who reported feeling the most out of control were under the influence of cocaine and hallucinogens. The findings described by Langevin and Lang (1990) demonstrate that the failure to control for the type of drug being abused might obscure some significant patterns between drug abuse and recidivism (Abracen et al., 2008).

Finally, a limitation present in any study working with a criminal database is that the information available is limited to what was previously collected. Some of the tests included in the current study were self-report measures. The offenders may have not fully endorsed some items or may be in denial and minimizing their difficulties (Abracen & Looman, 2004). Some studies have suggested that offenders may over report alcohol consumption to minimize their involvement in the crime and enhance situational factors (Seto & Barbaree, 1995). Individuals who score high on the PCL-R have been observed to do the opposite and gloat about their violent and aggressive behaviors. The database used in the current study was based on the Federal Criminal System which includes individuals who committed criminal offenses with a minimum of a 2-year sentence. Using individuals only in the federal system proposes that there might be missing data on individuals who committed offenses at a provincial level. There is also the possibility that these individuals may have committed a new offense but were never convicted or caught for the said crime.

Many future directions could be undertaken by researchers to extend on the present findings and the literature of moderate to high-risk sexual offenders. Given the limitation regarding not measuring negative emotionality, future research could utilize a psychometric test to measure emotionality in offenders. Looman et al. (2004) utilized the CISS emotion processing scale and the Social Intimacy Scale to classify sexual offenders but did not observe whether it had

predictive properties of recidivism. The concept of negative emotionality, in combination with alcohol abuse, may have an impact on recidivism. The current study also lacked a comparison group. The examination of a moderate to high-risk non-sexual comparison group would allow researchers to determine if the results of this study were due to overall criminality or if it was a specific finding in sexual offenders. The current study only observed sexual offenders as a whole when observing the predictive ability of the MAST, DAST and PCL-R on recidivism. Future studies may want to consider a Cox regression with each type of index offense to determine if any of the psychometric tests have more predictive ability for a specific type of sexual offender. A final direction that may be beneficial in future research is observing offender files to determine the drug they reported abusing. With the recent legalization of marijuana in Canada and past research on the emotional impact of a variety of drugs, it would be beneficial to observe the type of drug each offender reported abusing and its impact of recidivism.