The methods of how tea is prepared and consumed vary worldwide (Astill et al., 2001:5340;
Venditti et al., 2010:1597). Consumer tea and overall beverage consumption differ and is dependent on consumer gender, ethnicity / race and age (Storey et al., 2006:1992). Factors such as the local temperature, cultural habits and income also influence the different ways in which tea is consumed (De Godoy et al., 2013:802).
2.6.1 Profile of tea consumers
Hakim et al. (2000:1715) reported on the consumption patterns, composition and preparation of tea-based beverages in Arizona. A detailed tea questionnaire was compiled to obtain the information. The results concluded that more women (35%) than men (29%) indicated drinking tea (non-herbal) at least once a week, with more men (38%) consuming no tea in the previous year than women (27%). More women (34%) preferred brewed iced tea than men (16%). From the population under study, 66.4% of the participants indicated consuming tea during the previous year (Hakim et al., 2000:1722).
Geleijnse et al. (1999:2172; 2002:884) commented that in Western populations, tea consumption is mostly linked with a healthier diet and lifestyle. From the results of the study that investigated the link between tea consumption and aortic atherosclerosis, the researchers reported that tea consumption was generally associated with leaner, higher educated people and those that take vitamin antioxidants. Consumers that drink larger amounts of tea also have a lower intake of total fat, alcohol and coffee and do not smoke as much as those that consume less tea. The number of tea consumers was high in both men (84%) and women (91%). Female tea consumers on average consumed more tea than male tea consumers (438 vs 375 mL) (Geleijnse et al., 1999:2170).
The results from the Saudi Arabia National Study indicated that most men (91.8%) and women (87.2%) had a daily intake of black tea. Women consumed almost three and a half (3.4) cups of black tea and men five and a half (5.6) cups of black tea, with a cup equalling 80 mL tea. The daily consumption of six or more cups of black tea was indicated by 11.9% of women and 26.4%
of men (Hakim et al., 2003:66). Compared to those that consume less tea (one to three cups and four to six cups daily), the heavy tea consumers (more than six cups daily) were more likely to be younger, male, current smokers, coffee consumers and having a lower dietary fat intake
and a lower treatment rate for blood pressure and diabetes mellitus (all p < 0.01) (Hakim et al., 2003:67).
Mukamal et al. (2002:2476) indicated from their prospective cohort study of 1 900 hospitalised patients with acute myocardial infarction that 1 019 patients did not consume tea, while 615 patients consumed less than 14 cups of tea weekly and only 266 consumed more than 14 cups of tea weekly. The researchers reported that the heavy tea consumers (> 14 cups weekly) in the study were more likely to be women, older and to have a lower BMI than those patients drinking less and no tea weekly, but with similar education and household income levels. The incidence of hypertension and smoking status were also the same in these two patients groups (Mukamal et al., 2002:2477). A higher percentage of heavy tea consumers also consumed no alcohol and less coffee than those patients drinking less and no tea weekly (Mukamal et al., 2002:2478).
From their research on the association between black tea consumption and risk of total stroke and stroke types in a prospective study, Larsson et al. (2013:158) also commented on the sociodemographic characteristics of the study population. Compared with men and women who never consumed tea, those who consumed four or more cups per day were more likely to have a post secondary education and a lower BMI. These heavy tea consumers were also less likely to be smokers or to have a family history of hypertension. In addition to these characteristics, these heavy tea consumers moreover tended to eat more fruits and vegetables but drink less alcohol and coffee than those who did not consume tea.
Storey et al. (2006:1992) assessed the consumption of beverages across factors such as gender, ethnicity / race and age in the US population. The researchers used publicly available dietary survey data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999 - 2002. The results indicated that young children had a higher average intake of tea compared to coffee, but which was still low compared to the amounts of the other beverages consumed. The results further indicated that white children had a higher intake of tea and coffee with sugar than African-American children. Considering the adolescents, the average tea intake was higher among white than African-American teenagers. The researchers indicated that the highest tea intake was among white adults, aged 20 to 39 years, 40 to 59 years and 60 years and older. The Mexican-American and African-American adults, in contrast consumed small amounts of tea. In this study for all the race and age groups, boys / men had a higher tea intake than girls / women, except for the men and women aged 40 to 59 years where women had a slightly higher average tea intake (245.7 g) compared to the men (203.8 g). Song and Chun (2008:1543S) used the
same survey data referred to in the above paragraph (NHANES 1999 – 2002) to examine, among other factors, the sociodemographic characteristics of tea consumers in the US population. The study reported that older persons, females and those with a higher income are likely to be the tea consumers (p < 0.001). Walcott (2012:359) reported that previous research indicated that the largest US tea consumer category consisted of households with no children and with an income in the lower-middle and highest socioeconomic class groups. Tea consumption was also higher in the north-western part of the US with the consumption on average higher in the rural parts than in the urban areas.
2.6.2 Consumer tea drinking preferences
Worldwide, black tea is more popular than green tea (Tang et al., 2009:274; Hodgson & Croft, 2010:496; Venditti et al., 2010:1597; Pan et al., 2013:12). Tang et al. (2009:274) reported that worldwide 78% of the population consumes black tea compared to 20% that consumes green tea. The results from the Arizona-study indicated that green tea was the least preferred (8.7%), with most participants consuming iced black tea (51.8%) and hot black tea (30.7%) (Hakim et al., 2000:1717). Most (96.3%) tea consumers in the Chinese population prefer green or oolong tea (Yang et al., 2004:1534). Many Americans prefer iced tea prepared from hot tea and cooled with ice (Venditti et al., 2010:1597). Only nine percent of the participants from the Arizona-study indicated preparing iced tea with cold water-soluble instant tea (Hakim et al., 2000:1722).
Tea drinking is popular in Saudi Arabia where the tea preparation normally involves brewing it in a teapot and consuming it in small teacups (80 mL each) (Hakim et al., 2003:65). The Japanese prefer their tea in a more diluted form than South African tea consumers (Joubert et al., 2008:377). They use green tea leaves that are steeped in hot water for about two minutes. They reuse these leaves for two to three infusions. The Chinese population, on the other hand, steep tea leaves in hot water for only 20 to 40 seconds. These leaves are often repeatedly used for up to seven times (Venditti et al., 2010:1597). Most of the tea consumers from the Arizona-study consumed black tea of medium strength – 68.5% brewing their tea for two to three minutes and only 19.4% brewing their tea for more than three minutes (Hakim et al., 2000:1717). Hot (90.4%) or warm (9.6%) tea was mostly preferred by the participants (Hakim et al., 2000:1719). Most of the participants also prepared their hot black tea by infusing a tea bag (2.26 g) in 240 mL hot water (Hakim et al., 2000:1722).
De Godoy et al. (2013:801) used a questionnaire to assess consumers’ taste preferences, consumption, behaviour and beliefs on Brazilian mate tea [a tea prepared using the leaves of the locally known plant, yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis)]. On the question regarding the preferred type of mate tea consumed, 95% of the participants indicated using tea bags and 48% iced teas, with only five percent who indicated using the loose tea leaf form and two percent instant tea.
With regards to flavoured tea bags, most (69%) of the participants preferred the natural flavour of mate tea with about a third (35%) that preferred mate tea flavoured with lemon. Iced teas flavoured with peach and lemon were also preferred (25% and 24% respectively), with 29% still preferring the natural taste. The temperature of the mate tea was preferred by 61% of the participants to be hot. Most (90%) participants indicated consuming tea before bedtime. Mate tea was also consumed either at breakfast (36%) or between meals (37%) and most (90%) of the consumers consumed their tea at home (De Godoy et al., 2013:803).
In a study by Bryan et al. (2012:342) which assessed the relationship between beverage consumption on mood and work performance, participants indicated consuming a range of none to seven and a half cups of tea per day, with the mean intake one cup per day. Milk alone was added most to all the beverages consumed (tea, coffee, other caffeinated and decaffeinated beverages) and second most was milk and sugar. Sugar alone added to the beverages was the additive that was added by the lowest number of participants.
In Canada, the UK and Ireland tea is enjoyed with a considerable amount of milk added to it in addition to sugar also sometimes being added. The Japanese mostly consume their diluted tea without milk (Sharma et al., 2008:124). The effect of habitual tea intake on hypertension in the Chinese population was assessed by Yang et al. (2004:1534). The researchers found that of the 600 habitual green or oolong tea consumers, less than five percent (4.8%) added milk to their tea.
2.7 Questionnaire compilation for assessing consumer tea and herbal tea drinking