APLICABILIDAD DE ACUERDO A REALIDADES ESPECÍFICAS

hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, entire, rarely coarsely dentate or shallowly

lobed, ovate or oblong-elliptic, 15-25[-40]cm long, 8-12cm wide or more, apex acute to acuminate, base oblique; petioles to 6cm long. Flowers pen- dulous, solitary; pedicels 3-5cm long, stout in fruit; calyx tubular, spathe- like, split on one side, lobes not clearly separated, 1-4-toothed, 1.5-3cm wide, to 12cm long; corolla white or pale apricot, 25-30cm long, trum- pet-shaped, 5-lobed, tube slender, slender basal part wholly enclosed by calyx, gradually fl aring to the limb, the limb fl aring to broadly triangu- lar apices, with recurved terminal cusps 2-9cm long; stamens 5, insert- ed below middle of corolla tube; fi laments 4-5cm long; anthers distinct, linear, c.2.5cm long, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary 2-celled; style slen- der, 17-19cm long; stigma oblong, 2-lobed, 5-7mm long, included in co- rolla throat. Fruit an oblong-cylindric to fusiform pod or capsule, rarely formed, 4-valved, up to 20cm long, 2cm wide, pendulous, lacking a per- sistent calyx, smooth; seeds numerous, angular, D-shaped, laterally com- pressed, 6-10mm long, testa thick and corky, embryo curved.

Native to Peru; widely cultivated as an ornamental. The most com- mon cultivar is ‘buyés’; the most toxic cultivars are reputedly ‘salamán’ and ‘munchira’, which are uncommon and have mutated leaf forms [as do some other cultivars] (Bristol 1969; Wagner et al. 1990).

With seed germination, bottom heat may be benefi cial but is not always required; seeds germinate easily with no special treatment. Most plants rarely set seed. Cuttings root easily in water; in the Sibundoy, branch cut- tings over 50cm long are often simply stuck in the ground to strike. The best portions to use for cuttings are stems which are thick and quite vig- orous, as opposed to stems with woody growth. Water young plants fre- quently. Grow outdoors in a large tub or in a permanent position, pro- tected from wind in rich, well-drained soil. In summer, water once a week with organic liquid fertiliser. In cold areas, plants go dormant in winter, and may be brought indoors (Bristol 1969; Grubber 1973; pers. obs.).

BRUNFELSIA

(Solanaceae)

Brunfelsia australis Benth. (B. hopeana var. australis (Benth.) J.A.

Schmidt; B. paraguayensis Chodat) – yesterday today and tomorrow,

Paraguay jasmine, francissia

Brunfelsia chiricaspi Plowman – chiricaspi [‘cold tree’ or ‘fever tree’], chiricsanango [‘cold medicine’], sanango, covi-tsontinba-ko, borrachera [‘intoxicant’]

Brunfelsia grandifl ora D. Don (B. tastevinii Benoist; B. grandifl ora ssp. schultesii Plowman) – borrachero, chiricsanango, chiriqsanango, chiriguayusa, chiricaspi picudo, chiricaspi salvaje, chiricaspi chacruco, chinikiasip, sanango, hu-ha-hai, yai-hu-ha-hai, chi-pi-ri-tsontinba-ka Brunfelsia paucifl ora (Cham. et Schlect.) Benth. (B. calcyina Benth.

var. fl oribunda Raffi ll; B. calycina var. macrantha (Lem.) Bailey

et Raffi ll) – yesterday today and tomorrow

Brunfelsia unifl ora (Pohl) D. Don (B. hopeana (Hook.) Benth.) – manacá, umbura puama, vegetable mercury, jerataca, Paraguay jasmine, white tree, good night

In southern Colombia and adjacent Ecuador, the Kofan, Siona, Shuar, Runa and Ingano [and probably other groups also] sometimes add the leaves of B. chiricaspi to their ayahuasca brews [see Banisteriopsis], it being considered the strongest species of Brunfelsia in use [more on B. chiricaspi below]. Addition of Brunfelsia spp. to ayahuasca is said to make the brew stronger, and make a sound ‘like rain in the ears’. The Quechua name for the plant, ‘chiricaspi’, means ‘cold tree’ referring to the chills and tingling sensations that are felt after ingestion of the bark. It is said to act as a tonic over time, giving one strength and resistance to cold. Bark, stems, leaves or roots of B. grandifl ora and/or B. grandifl ora ssp. schultesii are also sometimes added [the former sometimes being taken with yoco (see Paullinia), though B. chiricaspi is preferred. This species, as well as B. grandifl ora ssp. schultesii, are also used by some of the same tribal groups in the Colombian and Ecuadorian Putumayo as intoxicants [‘bor- racheras’] without any other plants. In Peru, the roots are sometimes tak- en under a 1 month diet, as a plant teacher. It is said that old, thick roots are toxic, and that only roots c.1-1.5cm diameter should be used. A dose may consist of 2-3 roots (Bear & Vasquez 2000; Luna 1984; McKenna et al. 1995; Pinkley 1969; Plowman 1973, 1977; Schultes 1966, 1972, 1979; Schultes & Raffauf 1990). The Shuar infuse B. grandifl ora stems and leaves and drink the resulting beverage for curing. This reportedly gives the shaman “strong feelings” making it easier to diagnose the sick- ness of the patient (Bennett 1992).

B. unifl ora root constitutes the Brazilian medicinal drug ‘manacá’, which is used as an emetic, purgative, diuretic, antirheumatic, antisyph- ilitic and abortifacient. This plant is also occasionally used for shamanic purposes, and is known to cause delirium, tremors, salivation, vertigo, an- aesthesia, swollen tongue, ‘turbid vision’, and partial paralysis of the face. It gained its name from the Tupi of Brazil, who honoured its beautiful fl owers by naming it after the most beautiful girl in the tribe, Manacán. The root has been used in arrow poisons, and the Cambéba use its juice in the preparation of their ‘curupá’ snuff [see Anadenanthera]. The plant

T H E G A R D E N O F E D E N T H E P L A N T S A N D A N I M A L S

has also occasionally been added to ‘vinho de jurema’ [see Mimosa]. In Candomblé [Brazil], the fragrant fl owers [‘macaçá’] are used in ritual baths, and as an offering to the goddesses Oxum, Nama, and Yemanjá. B. chiricaspi is also used to treat fever, rheumatism and arthritis. Its ingestion initially results in chills and cold sweats, followed up to 6 hours later by loss of coordination, inability to move [symptoms lasting up to 48 hours], visual disturbances, vertigo, spinal and body tingling, tremors, stomach ache, nausea, weak vomiting, urtication, frothing at the mouth, swollen lips and ‘heavy tongue’. The plants are little used today as intoxicants, due to their unpleasant side-effects. It should be noted that use of B. grandifl o- ra has sometimes been mistakenly reported as B. maritima [B. latifolia] or B. bonodora (Duke & Vasquez 1994; Narby 1999; Plowman 1973, 1977; Schultes 1966, 1979; Schultes & Raffauf 1990; Voeks 1997).

B. australis has been responsible for poisoning dogs who ate the ber- ries of the plant – intoxicated dogs exhibited tremors, instability, lethar- gy, staring, frothing at the mouth, vomiting and other frequent excretions. This period was followed by collapse and convulsions, with rigidity but later relaxation; a hypersensitivity to stimulus remained. B. australis is of- ten sold in horticultural circles as either B. bonodora or B. latifolia, which are both separate species, the latter being synonymous with B. maritima. B. paucifl ora is also grown horticulturally (Bailey & Bailey 1976; Bor & Raizada 1954; McBarron 1983; McBarron & De Sarem 1975).

B. brasiliensis [as B. ramosissima] has yielded 0.1% scopoletin (Mors & Ribeiro 1957); leaves have been shown to contain brunfelsine and mana- cine [alkaloids of unknown structure]; seeds have yielded 1.14% brunfel- sine, and no manacine, though manacine had earlier been reported from the seeds (Plowman 1977).

B. grandifl ora has yielded c.0.1% scopoletin from unspecifi ed parts (Mors & Ribeiro 1957); root bark has yielded scopoletin, as well as brun- felsamidine [pyrrole-3-carboxamidine], a convulsant (Lloyd et al. 1985). B. grandilfora ssp. schultesii tested positive for alkaloids; the parts ana- lysed were not specifi ed (Evans 1979), but may have been foliage.

B. nitida leaves have been found to contain 5 calystegines [see Convolvulus] (Bekkouche et al. 2001).

B. paucifl ora [as B. calycina var. macrantha] has yielded scopoletin (Mors & Ribeiro 1957; Plowman 1977). B. paucifl ora [as B. calcyina var. fl oribunda] has caused lethal and nonlethal poisoning in dogs; the ac- tive principles seem to act in the manner of a spinal convulsant, such as

strychnine [not found in the plant], and are water soluble and very stable

(Spainhour et al. 1990).

B. unifl ora root acts as a CNS-depressant in rats; it has yielded 0.0033% scopoletin (Iyer et al. 1977) and cuscohygrine [mandragorine] (Plowman 1977). Other alkaloids have been found in the plant, such as hopeanine (Gellert et al. 1980), hopamidine [1H-pyrrol-3-amidine; in- hibited rat-paw oedema induced by cobra venom – see Naja] from the leaves [0.015%], stems, and roots (Birkner et al. 1987), and the convul- sants manacine and manaceine. Heated with water, manacine breaks down to manaceine and a substance that was thought to be aesculetin [see Aesculus] (Plowman 1977).

Brunfelsia chiricaspi is a shrub or small tree 1-3m tall; trunk to c.5cm diam. near base; bark thin, cracked lengthwise, roughish, grey- ish-brown; branches few, lax, spreading, naked; branchlets subterete, 5- 6mm diam., glabrous, light brown to ochraceous, shiny, outer bark thin and splitting longitudinally, shedding in thin fl akes; internodes c.1-3cm long. Leaves scattered along branchlets or somewhat crowded, elliptic to lanceolate, rarely obovate, 20-30 x 7-12cm, apex obtuse with short, sub- falcate acumen or acuminate, base cuneate to obtuse, glabrous, smooth, subcoriaceous, dull, dark green above, paler beneath, lateral nerves 8-10, straight, spreading, arcuately anastomosing 2-8mm within margin; pet- iole short, stout, subterete, 5-10mm long, canaliculate above, glabrous, dark brown, roughish. Infl orescence corymbiform, terminal or axillary, 4- 7(-20)-fl owered, fl owers puberulent or glabrous; bracts lanceolate, con- cave, 1-2mm long, glabrous; pedicel slender, terete, erect, 6-13mm long, glabrous; calyx tubular-campanulate, slightly infl ated, 10-13mm long, 4-6mm diam., subcoriaceous, glabrous, teeth short, broadly triangular, acute to blunt with short glandular acumen, in fruit coriaceous, striate- ly nerved, dotted with lenticels, to 13mm long; corolla tube twice as long as calyx, cylindric, straight, fl eshy, slightly dilated and curved at apex, 22- 25mm long, 3mm diam., glabrous, limb 25-30mm diam., glabrous, sky- blue to violet, fading to white, thickening prominently at mouth, fl eshy, 5-angled, white, lobes subequal, the uppermost slightly larger, rounded, abruptly narrowed at base, strongly defl exed at anthesis; stamens inserted in upper part of corolla tube; fi laments subligulate, curved at apex, lower inner pair 2.5mm long, upper outer pair 3.5mm long, reaching the mouth; anthers rounded-reniform, to 1.5mm long, light brown. Ovary ovoid-con- ical, gibbous at base, 2mm long, c.15-ovuled; style fi lamentous, curved at apex, equalling the fi laments; stigma bifi d, forcepiform, obtuse, upper lobe larger. Capsule subglobose, c.10mm long, 8mm diam., dry at matu- rity; seeds few, ellipsoid-reniform, 6 x 2.5mm, reticulate-pitted.

In forest; Colombia (Plowman 1973).

BUBBIA

(Winteraceae)

Bubbia sp. – kikisira

An unidentifi ed Bubbia sp. from Papua New Guinea is sometimes used by Gimi shamans [‘aona bana’] to divine the cause of illness. The bark is mixed with tobacco [see Nicotiana], and the mixture is smoked to enter a “dreamlike state” in which he may encounter his ‘aona’ [‘vi- tal force’ or ‘soul’], which will tell him what he needs to know (Bock un- publ.; Glick 1967).

Stem bark of a Bubbia sp. from Papua New Guinea [harv. Feb.] gave positive tests for the presence of alkaloids (Fong et al. 1972).

Bubbia spp. are small shrubs or trees, often very variable; stipules none. Leaves alternate or rarely whorled, pellucid-punctate, aromatic, en- tire, pinnatinerved, petioled. Infl orescence a terminal cluster, each pedun- cled, few- to many-fl owered, each lateral fl ower with 1 bracteole; fl owers bisexual; sepals 2-6, regular, valvate, +- cup-like or short and dentate; pet- als in bud protruding past sepals, in 2-several series, imbricate, often soon caducous; stamens 1-many, in 1-several series, hypogynous; stigmas api- cal, sessile. Carpels 1-many, in a single whorl or rarely biseriate, free, with 1-many ovules; styles usually none. Fruit a capsule, pulpate, calyx persist- ent; seeds with copious endosperm.

At least 19 species have been recorded in Papua New Guinea, from a genus of 32 species (Van Royen 1979-1983).

BUFO

(Bufonidae)

B U F O A L V A R I U S

Bufo alvarius Girard – Colorado River toad, Sonoran Desert toad, giant toad, Girar’s toad, sapo grande

Bufo bufo ssp. bufo L. (B. vulgaris Laurenti) – common European toad

Bufo bufo ssp. gargarizans Cantor (B. bufo ssp. asiaticus Stejneger; B. gargarizans Cantor)

Bufo marinus L. (Chaunus marinus (L.) D.R. Frost et al.; Rhinella marina (L.) Chaparro et al.) – cane toad, marine toad, giant toad, neotropical toad, aga toad

Bufo melanostictus Schneider

Bufo viridis Laur. – European green toad Bufo spp. – toads, sapo

In Meso-American mythology, the toad is symbolic of the Earth Mother, the fertile giver and taker of life; the Aztec Tlaltecuhtli is one em- bodiment of this concept. Quetzalcoatl the bird-serpent, and Tezcatlipoca, sorcerer-jaguar, were said to have found her fl oating in the sea at the be- ginning of creation, whence they tore her body in two to form the sky and the earth; the remains of her body gave rise to the fi rst food plants, in re- turn for the death that eventually awaits all mortals. The association with birth and death springs in part from the toad’s prolifi c breeding capabili- ties [also, male toads are sometimes able to revert to the female sex in or- der to reproduce under hardship], and the cannibalistic behaviour seen when a mother may eat her young. The change from egg to tadpole to toad is also symbolic of metamorphosis, itself representative of the endless cy- cle of life and death.

Toad remnants [usually of B. marinus], as well as carved artefacts such as statues, axe heads and bowls with toad representations, have been found in Mayan and Olmec burial sites dating back to 1250-900BC. Mayan art shows the toad as the servant of the rain gods. Likewise, with some tribes in the Orinoco basin of Amazonia, the toad is seen as the bringer of rain; there, toads are sometimes kept captive under pots in or-

T H E P L A N T S A N D A N I M A L S T H E G A R D E N O F E D E N

der to obtain rain if needed (Degraaf 1991; De Rios 1974, 1990; Furst 1976; Hamblin 1979; Kennedy 1982; Morgan 1995).

In southern Veracruz, Mexico, B. marinus has been used as an un- usual psychotrope for love magic or divination by shamans in the past. The venom from 10 toads was collected without harming them [or their parotoid glands are used], and mixed to a thick paste with plant ashes, 5 grains of sprouted corn, and limewater; this was boiled until its foul smell had passed, before being added to corn beer and strained. This liquid was mixed with corn meal and fermented in the sun for several days. It was then dried with heat, and rolled into a dough which would be reconsti- tuted with water and drunk when required. One researcher who ingested this preparation noted sweating and hypertension within 30min of con- sumption, followed by a chilling sensation, muscle twitching, headache, immobility and delirium, lasting 3-5hrs (Davis 1988; Furst 1976). B. ma- rinus and other Bufo spp. have reputedly also been added to the ‘balché’ brew of Central America [see Lonchocarpus] (Kennedy 1982; Rätsch 1992), and a live toad [species not noted] was observed to be added to a ‘chicha’ brew [see Methods of Ingestion] prepared by the Pakomam Maya of Guatemala in the 17th century (Kennedy 1982). B. marinus has been added to some Haitian zombi potions [see Methods of Ingestion] (Davis 1988).

Likewise, European witches have reputedly added Bufo spp. to some of their intoxicating magical brews. In rural England, a decoction or ‘cas- serole’ of a toad and ‘certain’ mushrooms [picked in full moonlight and not touched with the bare hands – see also Psilocybe] in spring water was said to be drunk [5 drops] as an aphrodisiac or love potion. Toad blood was said to be drunk for the same purpose in central Europe. Some European alchemists also used toads in various magical recipes. For ex- ample, “Five toads are shut up in a vessel and made to drink the juices of various herbs with vinegar as the fi rst step in the preparation of a mar- vellous elixir for the purposes of transformation”. The Taoists of China have a legend of the ‘gama sennins’ or ‘toad-wizards’, wise men who lived as mountain hermits with a giant toad, which taught the secrets of mag- ic and herbalism, as well as how to make pills that could turn the gamma sennin into a toad. Earlier Chinese myths speak of toads that could con- jure up visions of the Taoist ‘Islands of Paradise’ (Degraaf 1991; Kennedy 1982; Morgan 1995).

Toad preparations were prescribed to treat fever, dropsy and inconti- nence in numerous European pharmacopaeias of the 17th and 18th cen- turies (Chilton et al. 1979). Today, venom of B. bufo ssp. bufo, B. bufo ssp. gargarizans and/or B. melanostictus is still used in TCM as ‘ch’an su’. Small doses [22-37mg] are used to treat heart problems, and external- ly as a surface anaesthetic, detoxicant and anodyne, and to treat sinusi- tis, toothache, bleeding gums, and infl ammation. As an anaesthetic, it is sometimes applied as an alcoholic extract [30% concentration] compris- ing 9g ch’an su, 9g aconite root [see Endnotes], 16g Datura and 6g pep- permint, a preparation that would presumably be very dangerous if tak- en internally. The venom alone is toxic, and can cause nausea, vomit- ing, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, irregular heart beat, vasodilation, dizzi- ness and numb extremities. It has been sold in the US as a topical aphro- disiac, under names such as ‘love stone’, ‘black stone’ and ‘rock hard’, and has caused deaths when taken internally (Brubacher & Hoffmann 1996; Brubacher et al. 1995; Huang 1993; Keys 1976). Toad brains [‘ch’an nao’] may be used to cure “nightblindness and to clarify the vision”, ac- cording to some Chinese Materia Medicas (Kennedy 1982). In Nepal, some shamans use B. melanostictus venom for shamanic travel; it is tak- en simply by squeezing some onto the palm and licking it up (Müller- Ebeling et al. 2002).

Toad venom has a long history of use in poisoning – toads were appar- ently used for such murderous purposes by Roman poisoners, and much later in Italy toads were still noted to be in such use. These latter-day poi- soners would sometimes prepare a poisonous salt by placing a toad in a sack containing ordinary salt, and shaking. Thus some of the toad venom would be secreted due to such irritation and become mixed with the salt, which was then used “for slow, chronic poisonings” (Chilton et al. 1979). In 19th century Amazonia, ‘natives’ were claimed to prepare an arrow poi- son from B. agua venom, probably synonymous with B. marinus (Abel & Macht 1911), though this appears to be supposition as the amphibians so used were not identifi ed. The use of venomous frogs in that part of the world for such purposes is much better known [see Phyllomedusa].

Apparently, in parts of Somalia and Nigeria, weary travellers may pick up an available toad and rub it on their forehead for refreshing themselves and alleviating fatigue (Morgan 1995).

B. marinus was introduced to Queensland [Australia] in 1935 to con- trol the ‘cane beetle’ [Phyllophaga vandinei], which was infesting sug- ar cane crops. The toads ignored the beetles, which lived mostly above the reach of the toad anyway, and have since spread to become a major pest threatening native and domestic fauna (Tyler 1994). However, many here still love the toads [many more hate them with vigour], and some Australians have even attempted their use as psychedelics, though this practice is not common today. It should be noted that possession of B. marinus venom is illegal in Australia [particularly in Queensland], and is seen as being equivalent to bufotenine [a prohibited substance]. This is un-

usual, given that B. marinus venom is usually low or defi cient in its con- tent of that alkaloid. The means of administration in Australia has usually been to either decoct toad skin in water to be drunk, or to simply lick the venom glands of the toad. Although bufotenine-like psychotropic symp- toms have been reported from this, the practice is also highly dangerous due to toxic elements of the venom. Symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, sweating, burning in the mouth, salivation, convulsions, hypotension and hypertension, and tachycardia accompany the experience, which is usual- ly very unpleasant (Hitt & Ettinger 1986; Lewis 1989; Pantanowitz et al. 1998; pers. comms.). Smoking the dried venom does not seem to produce toxic side-effects in moderate amounts, and it would seem that the tox- ins do not survive the heat. With hand-collected venom that I have exper- imented with, central effects were usually mild at best, and consisted of a calm, non-emotive ‘stoned’ state lasting about 30-60 minutes, as well as a