An approach to the Pharmaco-politics of Happiness: The Genesis of Compulsive Wellness

Structural design development has resulted in new types of structure. The new potentials in structural design were, on the one hand, results in science and engineering knowledge and, on the other hand, new demands of clients. This was the case, for example, with building higher buildings and with longer spans. The overall pattern of architec-tural design has been the interrelation of tech-niques, construction technology, artistic ambition and functions. Tall buildings required new façade systems. Underground premises and atria equally called for new architectural and engineering solu-tions.

Hal Iyengar wrote that ‘The ability to form and shape a high-rise building is strongly influenced by the structural system. This influence becomes pro-gressively significant as the height of the building increases’ (Blanc et al., 1993: 227–8).

Figure 3.3 Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany, 1972, designer: Frei Otto. Following the German Pavilion at the Montreal Expo, 1967, the next major cable and membrane structure was the Munich Olympic Stadium.

To build higher and higher has been an ambition of mankind ever since time immemorial. With tradi-tional materials (stone, brick, timber) and technol-ogy, heights of 150 to 200 metres were achieved.

It was in the twentieth century only that structures with heights exceeding 200 metres could be realized.

Tall buildings were first built in Chicago and the Chicago architects strove for modern design. In New York neo-classicist features characterized the first period of tall buildings. All through the history

of skyscrapers, architects and structural engineers struggled to find more and more appropriate archi-tectural and structural expression for the buildings and also to devise solutions regarding their adapta-tion to the surrounding urban environment. During the 1930s buildings climbed to 300 metres and above and, following the Second World War, the 400 metre mark was passed.

A novel phenomenon is that at the present time the tallest building is not in the USA or another industrialized country but in a developing country:

Figure 3.4 Façade with one- or two-part box-type bracings, eliminating thermal (cold) bridges, single, or thermal (double) insulating glazing, zipped-in plastic gasket sections (Pittco T-wall, USA).

© Sebestyen: Lightweight Building Construction, Akadémiai Kiadó.

this is the twin towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

From the ten tallest buildings in the world four only are in New York and Chicago with the others being located in cities in developing countries (Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Hong Kong). On 11 September 2001 the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York fell victim to a terrorist attack by hijacked aeroplanes. In the meantime the Tshinmao Building in Shanghai was completed (in 1998) with its tower 420.5 metres high. The construction of the Global Financial Cen-ter was commenced in Shanghai; it is planned to scale the height of 466 metres. In China’s capital, Beijing, several new tall buildings are also

envis-aged. In 2001, the majority of buildings exceeding 90 metres were still in New York, followed by Hong Kong and Chicago, but it can be predicted that the share of the developing countries will grow.

It has become the prerogative of the twenty-first century to build higher than 500 metres. In the race for the world’s highest building Hong Kong, Shang-hai and Chicago are participants and others will cer-tainly enter the competition. Buildings will soon climb to 600–800 metres in height (Campi, 2000).

To build that high, a number of technical problems had and have to be solved (Vambersky, 2001). In Figure 3.5 Façade system (two variants) with aluminium frame sections, fixed insulating glazing and plastic spacers (Mesconal, Germany).

© Sebestyen: Lightweight Building Construction, Akadémiai Kiadó.

the forefront of these stands structural safety. This includes not only sufficient compressive strength of the superstructure and foundation but also safety against earthquake, strong wind, impact action (aircraft crash, explosion, etc.), human dis-comfort from vibration and horizontal movement.

Some of the solutions involve a strong influence on the design of buildings. A conspicuous new com-ponent is the diagonal bracing appearing on the façade, such as the stiffened tube of the John Han-cock Center in Chicago and many others since then. Another mostly hidden device is the passive and active damping system applied to reduce vibra-tion of the structure.

The evolution of the vertical (lateral) system resulted in the following systems:

• shear (or ‘Vierendel’) frame with rigidly jointed columns and beams

• shear truss with diagonalized bracing between columns

• shear truss and frame with both shear frame and shear trusses and added knee braces

• shear-truss-frame outrigger and belt trusses:

two-dimensional planar framework with the floor slab providing the lateral tie between them

• framed tube: closer spacing of columns and a continuous frame over corners

• truss tube with a form as framed tube but with wider spacing of columns and tied across by a system of diagonals

• bundled or modular tubes (diagonalized tube):

grouped together framed or trussed tubes

• super-frame or mega-frame: a shear frame where horizontal and vertical members are large, several storeys deep and several bays wide

• composite systems: mixed reinforced concrete and steel systems with concrete shear walls or concrete framed tubes combined with steel framing.

For tall buildings many components had to be adapted to the specific conditions of such build-ings, including frame connections, floors, ceilbuild-ings, partitions and foundations. These also affected the aesthetic solution of the tall buildings.

Elevators and the supply systems are a source of a series of problems. Water pressure restrictions

require zoning in height: many tall buildings demonstrate the zones on the façade; how this was to be solved became a design problem to be reckoned with. Water supply in case of fire, pre-vention against smoke propagation, safety of lifts, HVAC, lighting, communications in case of calami-ties call for planning in advance for all eventualicalami-ties.

A survey on the history of skyscrapers defines the following periods (Bennett, 1995):

• the functional period, 1880–1900

• the eclectic period, 1900–20

• the ‘Art Deco’ period, 1920–40

• the ‘International Style’, 1950–70

• the period of giant towers, 1965–75

• the period of social skyscrapers, 1970–80

• the post-modern period, 1980 to date.

It is not the aim of this book to delve into any details about the history of architecture and we are also keeping the story of skyscrapers brief. The Empire State Building, New York, completed in 1931, originally 381 metres, remained the world’s tallest for 40 years. Following the Second World War the Lever House, New York, completed in 1952 (architect: Gordon Bunshaft from Skidmore, Owings and Merrill) and the Seagram Building, New York, completed in 1958 (architect: Mies van der Rohe with Philip Johnson), served as models for all subsequent International Style skyscrapers.

Within the long list of subsequent skyscrapers we would mention the John Hancock Center, Chicago, completed in 1969, design by Fazlur Khan. It has external diagonal bracing since imitated with vari-ous alternatives. For some time the Sears Tower, Chicago, completed in 1974, ranked as the tallest building in the world. It is 443 metres high and is composed of nine rectangular prisms. This has finally, or rather temporarily, been topped by the twin Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, completed in 1998, architect Cesar Pelli with asso-ciates. These and all others realized or to be real-ized have been designed with a strong interrela-tionship with technological developments.

New skyscrapers were designed with new con-cepts. One such concept is the design of ‘flat’

buildings, which spread out the loads in the subsoil and can more efficiently withstand horizontal forces; one such project is the planned Swiss Re

building in London. However, the terrorist attack against the twin towers of the New York World Trade Center may well prompt a searching reassessment of many planned future skyscrapers.

For the sake of completeness we must note within this section tall engineering structures: towers, silos, bunkers. These also constitute a new class of architectural design problems, see for example the structures by Calatrava, bridge pylons for suspen-sion and for cable-stayed bridges and water towers.