The researcher contends that the above-mentioned concept of gender sensitive cultural hermeneutics can and should be fruitfully applied to studies of masculinity / masculinities from a pastoral-theological perspective. It can indicate that the battle against patriarchy, and its consequences in the form of masculine sexism, has not merely humiliated women. In accordance with the German theologian, Jürgen Moltmann82, the researcher contends it (patriarchy and its
82 In a chapter entitled “Feminist Theology For Men” in his book Experiences in Theology: Ways and Forms of Christian Theology, Moltmann, invites men to develop a male or masculine liberation theology (Moltmann 2000a:
269-271). This theology, according to him, can free both men and women from the estrangements brought about by patriarchal traditions. The researcher is positive about Moltmann’s aim of drawing hitherto apathetic men to discourses on the liberation of both males and females, but agrees primarily with Koopman’s (2004) suggestion that men do not need to develop a masculine theology, but that we should become teachable and should do theology in a
consequences) has in some ways robbed many men of their fixed identity and prescribed understanding of humanity. The exclusion of women from defining and determining what it means to be human makes all men and women losers. The concern is not only that the humanity of women is ignored because of this denial. “Men are also dehumanized since they miss the opportunity to understand and experience full humanity.” (Koopman 2004:192, own italics)
Moltmann (2000a: 278) asserts: “If the divided and pre-programmed man compensates for his inner anxieties83 through aggression towards women and by disparaging them, he destroys the humane society…Like racism, masculine sexism is basically self-hatred which constitutes a public danger. The feminist liberation of women from their patriarchal and sexist oppression gives men too the chance to free themselves from their delusion of supremacy, and to develop more human qualities.”
In many regards, the struggle for gender equality continues to be viewed by many people primarily as a women’s struggle. The contributions of men in this struggle, though small but significant, have not been adequately visible and evident. Men have more often been viewed part of the problem, but it is important that they are seen as part of the solution. Stories of men’s struggles and pain must also be told. Men, like women, have been socialized within societies with deeply held beliefs and values and have had to carry the weight of societal expectations of being masculine. In these contexts (as have been referred to before), most men have been unable to reveal their “soft” side and their emotions of fear of being criticized. Men are generally not treated with the same sensitivity as women. The needs, concerns, feelings and fears of both women and men must have equal value and importance.
humble way. “That means that we have to learn to listen to and follow the voices of women. Men can only participate in the liberation of women, and in their own liberation, if we identify with those who suffer under us and if we allow them to continually steer the discourse. Only in this way can we make a fruitful theological contribution.” (Koopman 2004:192)
83 Concerning masculinity, Morrell (2001a: 8) observes: “Masculinity is not inherited nor is it acquired in a once-off.
It is constructed in the context of class, race and other factors which are interpreted through the prism of age. Boys develop a masculine gender identity which is deficient, relative to the adult masculinity of men…the stages by which boys become men – manhood – are a source of anxiety and a rite of passage…Their tastes and their bodies are influenced, some would say shaped, by discourses of gender which they encounter from birth.”
Partnerships should be built, and in order to do that men and women must work together in ways that are positive, progressive, respectful and healthy. These types of partnerships between men and women can provide a good basis for the shared interests and constructive relations on which gender justice can be based. Leading African woman theologian, Isabel Phiri (2004: 21) states:
“African women’s theologies include men in the vision and struggle for African liberation from all forms of oppression. A partnership and mutuality with men for the exclusion of all forms of violence against women in sought.”
In accordance with this desire, Klein (2004: 42) (in conversation with Denise Ackermann) asserts: “Women’s liberation is an ongoing struggle and is deeply connected to the liberation of men as well. No men can be liberated as long as women are not liberated…men must join women in the struggle against discrimination, abuse and violation. It is about their humanity as much as it is about ours. Solidarity is all we ask for.”
Across the world, in addition to the efforts needed to ensure women’s rights, there is growing recognition that men’s full and active support is necessary to achieve gender equality, end violence against women, and mitigate the impact of HIV. Indeed, in many communities worldwide, men work creatively to end men’s violence against women and children, prevent HIV and to foster gender equity. South Africa has seen some men taking the issue of gender equality as seriously as they took the struggle for the liberation of the oppressed masses. Men’s involvement in these efforts has taken many forms. According to Peacock & Botha (2006: 284-285), among the earliest and most visible public manifestations are the various men’s marches launched since 1997 that have drawn thousands of men out into the streets in a public repudiation of men’s violence against women and children.
Since the first men’s march organised by ADAPT (Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training), the South African NGO Coalition (SANGOCO) and the South African Men’s Forum (SAMF) in 1997, both government and civil society have demonstrated considerable commitment to increasing men’s involvement in efforts to promote gender equality. The issue of fatherhood and paternal responsibility has more recently become the focus of considerable attention (as will
be discussed in more detail at a later stage). In essence then there is growing support among men to dismantle patriarchal practices that demean women.
Other initiatives in this regard include the following: GENDER, EDUCATION AND TRAINING NETWORK (GETNET) (cf. Daphne 1998: 24); THE MEN AS PARTNERS (MAP) NETWORK and THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEN’S FORUM (SAMF) (cf. Peacock and Botha 2006: 284-285).
But despite the above-mentioned initiatives, many other men stay blind to the previously mentioned realities and challenges in terms of gender inequalities. ‘The fish are the last to discover the ocean’, is an expression which can be used to bring home to men the realisation that in the context of the gender power system, they are the norm and have always been so. Efforts to promote gender equality have long focused on women, the subordinate sex in this system. But equality is about women and men having the same rights, responsibilities and opportunities. The creation of a gender equal society will not be achieved unless men and women work together to transform the conditions that govern the lives of both sexes.
Men must acknowledge that existing relations of power serve to perpetuate an undemocratic system which affects all members of society. What is expected of men in contemporary society is revealed in expressions like ‘the primacy of the male norm’, ‘the hegemonic masculinity’, or
‘the male stereotype’. Thus, men find it difficult to break into areas traditionally defined as
‘female’ occupations. Violence committed by men against women is the ultimate consequence of the values inherent in a society characterised by male dominance and female subordination.
Although gender-based power structures will assume different forms depending on levels of awareness in a given culture, all of them embody traditional values of some kind and perpetuate the existing order. Research into men and masculinity will help increase our knowledge of the subject and is an important factor in efforts to bring about change. More men must be actively engaged in gender equality work and be prepared to openly oppose violence committed by men against women if we are to achieve a gender equal society.
This will only be possible if men are committed to change their attitudes and mindsets on the gendered issues in society. This is possible because culture is dynamic and gender roles, including masculinity are not (only) traditionally inherited, but are products of social formation.
If/When men become aware of their capacity to change their attitudes and mindsets on the above-mentioned issues, it can establish an essential matrix for the transformation of male identity.