Arquitecturas de redes neuronales para segmentación semánticasemántica

fresco painting, however, was simple color and geometric shapes, intended to add variety to the rooms it decorated. In some cases it imitated varicolored stone to suggest a richer and more expensive eff ect. Roman wall fresco painting gives us a great deal of information about the artistic taste of the people whose houses it decorated.

Th e artists who specialized in wall painting were or- ganized with a master craft sman as the lead designer and assistants to accomplish the more routine tasks. Th ere is historical evidence that a “fi gure painter” was paid more than the ordinary wall painter. Th ere is also evidence that Roman painters used pattern books for repeated decorative designs and types. Th e technique of fresco painting required that the plaster be applied to the walls in sections, only as much as the painters could decorate in a single day. Th e materials used, in addition to the lime plaster, were mainly natural pigments. Th ese included chalk white, carbon black, and earth colors such as red and yellow ocher. Blue had to be specially produced from a copper compound. Th e use of natural materials has contributed to the permanence and preservation of the paintings.

From archaeological evidence we can trace the develop- ment of Roman wall painting from the second century b.c.e. to about the fourth century c.e. Styles changed with popu- lar taste. At Pompeii, where many examples were preserved when the town was buried in 79 c.e. by the volcanic eruption of Vesuvius, it is possible to distinguish four styles. Not all scholars agree on the historical sequence, but the “four styles of Pompeian painting” form a basis for the general study of the art form. Th e fi rst style consisted of a combination of paint and plaster, imitating stonework, oft en brightly colored. Th e second style kept some of the imitation stonework but added fanciful views of imaginary architecture with the in- tention of suggesting illusions of depth. In the third style the illusions of architecture became less important, and images on the walls were treated more like surface decoration, even when they represented landscapes. Th e fourth style reverted to an emphasis on fantastic architecture and illusionist spaces and became even more elaborate.

In addition to fresco painting, interior walls were oft en further ornamented with plaster decoration. Th is work oft en imitated relief carving in stone and served to make interi- ors even richer in appearance. Decorative plasterwork was a highly skilled craft , used in the embellishment of buildings as important as Nero’s palace in Rome, the Domus Aurea (Golden House).

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Mosaic was another important art form used in the decora- tion of architectural spaces. Th e Romans especially favored it because it added color and interesting compositions to fl oors in a much more durable material than rugs or carpets. It was not only hard wearing but also easy to keep clean. Mosaics consist of small pieces (tesserae) of stone, or sometimes ce- ramics or glass, set in a cementlike matrix. Th e stones were

generally of natural colors, collected from many diff erent sources. Th e designs of mosaic fl oors might be simple geo- metric patterns, scenes of daily life, illustrations from Greek and Roman mythology, or special themes such as the seasons or months of the year. In some cases mosaics were made in imitation of famous paintings. Usually, the subject of fi gural decoration was selected to suit the purpose of the building. For example, the designs in Roman public baths were oft en compositions with Neptune, god of the sea, surrounded by mermaids and mythical sea animals. At Ostia, the seaport of Rome, mosaics in an area of commercial offi ces depict the various kinds of business and trade carried out. Th e subject matter of a domestic mosaic fl oor could suggest the cultural interest or special occupation of a householder.

Some exceptional mosaics were made as small wall deco- rations. Usually composed of very small pieces of stone, they approach the art of painting in their detail and realism. Some of these wall pieces are compositions of familiar objects that would today be called “still lifes.” Depicting bottles, glasses, fruit in baskets, and similar items arranged in interesting groupings, they suggest the skill of the mosaic makers as well as of the painters who probably originally designed them.

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Pottery or ceramics, the art of working with clay, has been a necessary and important craft in almost every civilization and culture. In the ancient world pottery took the place of many materials in use today, such as glass and plastic. Effi - cient ceramic manufacture was especially crucial to the Ro- man economy, because vital products such as olive oil and wine were shipped in clay containers. In addition to the sim- ple containers made for cooking, eating, storage, and ship- ment, the Romans developed several art forms based on clay. Small statuettes or fi gurines made from molds were popu- lar as decorative and religious objects. Th ey included care- fully detailed and brightly painted representations of gods and goddesses or even favorite athletes and gladiators. Use- ful items such as clay oil lamps were made by the hundreds of thousands, but they were oft en enhanced with interesting designs. Probably the most important type of ceramic ware made in Roman times was the pottery called Arretine ware, made in the region of modern Arezzo. Th is type took advan- tage of a kind of fi ne red clay that lent itself to the production of cups, plates, and bowls with fi ne designs, made in fi gured molds. Arretine ware was imitative of designs made in silver and may have been a substitute for the more expensive mate- rial. Oft en these clay vessels were stamped to designate the maker and even the individual craft sman responsible for the design, suggesting that Arretine ware was special enough for the artist-designers to take pride in their work.

Roman craft smen were particularly skillful in making objects of metal. In part this was one the traditions learned from the Etruscans, who had been famous as metalworkers throughout the ancient world. Roman bronze workers cre- ated objects ranging from colossal statues to simple pots and

pans to weapons and armor. Many diff erent household ob- jects found in the ruins of Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum (also destroyed in the great Vesuvian eruption) evince the widespread use of bronze for such items. It is very informa- tive to see the variety of metal objects used in everyday life: containers, serving implements such as pitchers and ladles, scales for weighing food and other materials, tools and medi- cal instruments, and even small stoves for hot water. Th ese may be classifi ed as craft s objects rather than works of art, but they were oft en designed to be decorative as well as use- ful. Tables, chairs, beds, and accessories such as lamp stands were made either completely of bronze or with bronze parts or fi ttings. Th is wealth of material attests to a well-developed and resourceful metal industry.

Th e armies of ancient Rome, as well as the combatants in the frequent gladiatorial games, required a vast amount of arms and armor, usually made of bronze but occasionally of silver or even gold for special ceremonial uses. Th is military

gear ranged from swords and spears to beautifully decorated body armor and helmets. Th e metal craft smen who worked in the imperial armories were highly skilled in making practi- cal protective pieces as well as “parade” armor meant only for display. Helmets and arm guards made for the gladiators were oft en as thick as boiler plate and provided excellent pro- tection in the arena.

Specialized metalworkers dealt with the luxury craft s in gold and silver. Th ey produced splendid table services and display pieces for the aristocracy and the wealthy. Highly skilled craft smen made matching sets of ware and utensils decorated with scenes from mythology and embellished with garlands of grapevines, olive branches, and other plant forms. Th ese opulent sets required the ability to adapt metalworking techniques to creating a high level of careful detail.

Another specialized area of metalworking was coinage. During the sixth and fi ft h centuries the Greeks had devel- oped the design and production of coins to a high degree of

Roman terra-cotta relief showing an Egyptian scene set on the Nile, from the fi rst century b.c.e. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)

art. Under the Roman Republic and Empire the specialized artistic design of coins continued. Th e materials were gold, silver, and bronze and other alloys. Th e art was in the cutting of the dies from which the coins were struck. Th e images were mainly of the emperor, his family, and other important per- sons, as well as symbols of state and representations of myth. Roman coins are not only miniature works of art but contain considerable historical information.

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Few examples of the art of woodworking have been preserved, but from depictions in wall painting, representations in relief carvings, and a scant few remains, we know that the craft was used extensively in furniture making. Similarly, few products of the art of weaving survive. Th e climate of Italy and much of Europe has prevented the preservation of garments and other woven materials, so we must rely on the pictorial evidence in paintings, relief carvings, and mosaics. However, garments preserved from parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, give us an idea of textile decoration. Materials used were cot- ton, linen, and wool. Design devices included colorful bor- ders and appliqués, so the impression we have from sculpture of Roman attire as colorless is not completely accurate. Color- ful cottons from India and silks imported from China have been found in the oasis caravan city of Palmyra in the Syrian desert, further attesting to a general interest in richly deco- rated dress during the time of the Roman Empire.

Roman craft smen excelled at the art of jewelry making. In part this was one more tradition inherited from the Etrus- cans. Over the centuries the Etruscans had evolved a highly developed jewelry industry exhibiting great artistry and technical skill. Th ey were especially expert in working gold. Among other techniques they developed was granulation, a method of applying tiny balls of gold in patterns on a plain surface. Roman jewelry makers continued to use methods invented by the Etruscans and took them to an even higher degree of accomplishment. In addition to working in gold and silver, they were skillful at engraving stones to be set into rings, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces. Where today these gemstones would probably be diamonds, rubies, and emer- alds, the ancient jewelers used semiprecious stones such as carnelian, agate, and quartz. Th e designs might include im- ages of the gods and goddesses, scenes from mythology, and the name or motto of the owner. Th e art of the cameo in glass or multicolored stone was also highly developed. Elaborate profi le portraits were oft en done in this technique, which re- quired great skill in design and execution.

Not all jewelry or objects of personal adornment were made of precious metals. One of the most characteristic ob- jects used by Roman men and women alike was the fi bula, a broach that served to fasten a cloak or other garment. Th e fi b- ula was like a large safety pin with spring action and a clasp, but it was oft en decorated with designs so that it became an object of art in its own right.

Some of the great achievements of Roman artists and craft smen were in the art of glassmaking. Glass was not a new invention—it had been produced in some parts of the ancient world for centuries—but the methods of making blown glass did not become well known until the fi rst century b.c.e. Ro- man craft smen excelled in the manufacture of all sorts of vessels and containers in glass—jars, bottles, plates, bowls, inkwells, and even such specialized objects as baby feeders. Th e forms employed ranged from simple undecorated shapes to elaborate and fanciful showpieces. Glass was mainly free- blown but also blown in molds to give it designed shapes and surface decoration. Cameo glass was produced by coating one color of the material with another, then grinding away parts of the surface to make a design. Some examples of com- plicated glassmaking that survive are evidence of a highly de- veloped working tradition in a material that challenged the imagination of the artisans to great heights of creativity.

Th e arts of Rome refl ected the accomplishments and as- pirations of the Roman people. Th e artistic traditions evolved with the development of the Roman state from its beginnings in the Republic to the height of Empire and its eventual de- cline. Th e values of republican Rome are best illustrated by the severe portraits of distinguished personalities of the time. Th e attitudes of the ruling elite during the greater expansion under the Empire are shown by the return to forms that imi- tate Greek styles and by the fl ourishing decorative arts. With the division of the Empire in the fourth century and the ad- vent of Christianity, the arts, particularly sculpture, under- went changes that refl ect the social situations of the time.

Th e Arch of Constantine (312–15 c.e.) illustrates these changes, being decorated with reliefs salvaged from previous reigns as well as work from the time of Constantine himself. Th e reused pieces are in the traditional styles refl ecting the infl uences of the Greeks and Etruscans. Th e new composi- tions are in a style that can be characterized only as more schematic and less realistic. Th ey depict the emperor and his court, but in graphic contrast to earlier representations such as that of Augustus and his entourage on the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine shows the ruler and courtiers in stiff frontal views. Th e art of Rome had once again adjusted to the needs of its time. Th e interest expressed was not in realistic or ideal representation but in information conveyed in the most direct and diagrammatic fashion possible.

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