Artículo 1: Diferencias en la actividad de la enzima ureasa entre Cryptococcus

Much of the empirical research which has been conducted in this field suggests that instances of failed ERP implementation can be linked specifically to the inadequate views of strategy which are held by many senior managers within companies. In particular, Grabski et al (2011) argue that the actions and viewpoints which are adopted by senior organisational managers often have a serious impact on the likelihood of whether an ERP system implementation will be successful or not. It is argued that the majority of senior managers tend to visualise the process of strategy as a linear process; as a result, their view of organisational change is highly mechanistic and they are more likely to conceptualise change using traditional project management models. As a result, many senior organisational managers are unlikely to accurately consider the impact of organisational change on individuals within the organisation. According to Koh, Gunasekaran and Cooper (2009), this failure to consider the welfare of individuals within the organisation is indicative of a failure of senior managers to utilise relationship based and processual models when evaluating change; as a result they are unlikely to achieve the best possible results of the new ERP system since they are essentially clinging to ideals which are associated with the linearity of industrial age thought. This is expanded upon by Dorobat (2009) who criticises senior organisational managers by stating that they generally assume that the implementation of a new ERP system will in itself be sufficient to bring the required benefits to the organisation.

Typically, only limited attempts are made to ensure that the new technology which is implemented is fully understood and integrated within the social context of the organisation. This is contrasted with an example of a successful ERP implementation by Dezdar and Ainin (2011) who claim that an organisation which is able to successfully manage a new ERP system does so because they ensure that all of the stakeholders within the company have shared goals. Furthermore, successful managers take the time to ensure that all of the stakeholders have a clear understanding of the business model of the overall organisation, and of the way in which the technology which is encompassed within the new system fits into this business model. This is further underlined by Madhani (2012) who conducts a survey of different ERP implementation projects and concludes that a key issue which prevents many

organisations from reaping the benefits of ERP projects is the fact that the interactions which take place between different stakeholders, or „change agents‟ within the company are poorly managed. Most of the senior managers which are in charge of organisations where a new ERP system is being implemented tend to view themselves as being a single leader who is responsible for unilaterally imposing a linear process of change. Dorobat (2009) contends that this perspective is fundamentally mistaken and suggests that it is actually more realistic to assume that there are a number of different groups which are associated with any type of organisational change – these groups include middle managers, teams, senior leaders and external consultants. The different interests and motivations of these groups meant that there is significant potential for conflict between these different cohorts, and it is the failure to effectively manage the different interests of these groups which is likely to contribute the problems concerning the issues which arise with the implementation of ERP systems.

Indeed, if one examines the prescriptions of the empirical studies which have been published in this area with regard to the key factors which determine the success or the failure of ERP systems, one immediately notices that these factors are closely intertwined with the roles and strategies which should be adopted by the senior managers within an organisation. For example, Bezawada (2012) argues that the success of an ERP implementation is closely dependent on extent to which the senior management team of the organisation displays long term commitment to the project. This is expanded upon by Koh et al (2009) who argue that the success of an ERP project relies heavily on the quality of communication which is implemented by the senior organisational team with the rest of the stakeholders within the organisation.

Aside from this, however, the consensus within the secondary research appears to be that the most important quality which needs to be exhibited by the senior manager of an organisation implementing an ERP system is the quality of good leadership. In other words, it is essential for senior managers to be able to effectively convey to the stakeholders within the organisation the way in which the change which is related to the new system is related to the company‟s overall goals and to the mission statement of the organisation. In other words, it is necessary for the senior manager to emphasise the fact that the change which will ensue is „institutional‟ in nature rather than being confined to a single area of the organisation (Arlbjorn & Haug, 2010). Furthermore, it is necessary for the senior manager to demonstrate

that the implementation of the ERP system is related to business‟ needs to respond to changes in its market environment and that it is not merely the product of business requirements which are related to technological issues. The need to emphasise the fact that the establishment of a new ERP system is an issue which affects the entire organisation, it is important for senior managers to ensure that the responsibility for the management of technological change is not relegated to the technical divisions of the organisation, but that it is something which is managed on an organisation wide level in order to support the idea that it is an organisation-wide change. A study which was conducted by Silva, De Silva and Gunawardana (2011) suggests that, in order for the implementation of an ERP system to be effective, it is also necessary for the high level of commitment which senior managers give to an ERP project to be clearly visible to the rest of the organisation. When other stakeholders within the organisation see the level of commitment which is being associated with the project from such a high level they are more likely to see it as a more holistic initiative which affects the whole organisation, and are likely to reciprocate. The importance of ensuring a high level of visible commitment from the senior organisational team is also reflected in a series of case studies which were conducted by Alsalem (2009). In particular, the case study of a finance company which was located in China indicated that the ERP implementation initially failed due to the fact that the senior managers perceived it to be a purely technical issue; rather than adopting a holistic view of the system implementation, there was little commitment to the project from the senior organisation and the management of it was wholly left to the IT division. However, the poor beginning of the project was reversed when the senior managers adopted a clear strategy of signalling their commitment to the implementation of the project by talking about their enthusiasm for the project within corporate newsletters and by talking about the benefits of the new project with the employees, retailers and suppliers of the company.

In addition to displaying high levels of commitment to an ERP project, research suggests that it is also essential to ensure that the senior managers establish clear desired outcomes and clear outcomes in relation to the implementation of an information system. This can be achieved by ensuring that a new mission statement is developed by senior managers which outlines the shared values of the organisation, the way in which these values are met by the implementation of the new system, and the various roles and responsibilities which need to be fulfilled in order to increase the effectiveness of the project (Arlbjorn & Haug, 2010). The

aim of taking this action is to ensure that all of the stakeholders within the organisation fully understand the value which is associated with the implementation of the ERP system. This is described by Ifinedo and Nahar (2009) as a form of „symbolic management‟ since its key aim is to provide the rest of the stakeholders within the organisation with a rationale for the changes which are taking place as a result of the ERP implementation, and also to establish a strong foundation for change. In order for such symbolic management to be effective, it is necessary to ensure that senior managers are involved in all stages of the implementation of the ERP system and that their contribution to the ERP project is visible within all ranks and throughout the entire hierarchy of the organisation. Research which has been conducted by Koh et al (2009) suggests that one way in which the commitment of the organisation could be effectively displayed would be by ensuring that there are regular meetings which are organised between the senior managers, the employees and the mid level managers, in order to ensure that everyone working at all levels of the organisation is fully apprised of the progress which is being made within the ERP project and of its likely benefits.

A second key issue which must be dealt with by the senior managers within an organisation in order to increase the likelihood that an ERP project will be successfully implemented is for managers to effectively manage the different concerns and motivations of various groups of employees. This is due to the fact that, as outlined by organisation behavioural theory, the majority of organisations are essentially loose conglomerations of individuals who all have very different interests and preferences. It is therefore likely that the advent of a fundamental change to an organisation, such as the establishment of a new ERP system, is likely to constitute a severe threat to the status quo which may result in the emergence of conflict between different interest groups in an organisation. This is confirmed by Ghazanfari et al (2009) who argue that the most common cause of a failed ERP project is actually due to the failure of the senior managers within the organisation to manage conflict between different employees. In order to manage these issues, Spitzley and Kumar (2012) suggests that it is necessary for senior managers to obtain strong approval for the project from prominent people within the organisation. These individuals can then act as opinion leaders by encouraging other employees within the organisation to embrace the new ERP project with greater enthusiasm. This is effectively summarised by Silva et al (2011) who suggests that it is the responsibility of the senior managers in a company to make it easier for the stakeholders in the organisation to more easily „bid farewell‟ to the former status quo which

existed prior to the new ERP system, and to enable them to successfully adapt to the new system. If this role is not effectively fulfilled by the senior managers, it is likely that the introduction of the new system would be met by feelings of employee demoralisation and demotivation; this is likely to have long term effects in reducing the likelihood that the new ERP system will be full heartedly embraced by members of the organisation. If such feelings of employee demoralisation persist, it is possible that this could have a significant negative effect on employee turnover and, consequently, on organisational profitability in the long run.

A third area in which the actions of the senior managers are likely to have a significant impact on the success of an ERP system implementation is in the nature of the communication which they have with their employees. As has been stated by Ganesh and Mehta (2010), employee acceptance of a new ERP system, and consequently, the overall success of the ERP system, is significantly more likely if there is a high level of understanding, acceptance and approval of the new ERP system among all organisational stakeholders. In order for such a condition to exist, however, it is necessary for there to be continued close communication between the managers and all relevant stakeholders. As part of this communication, it is necessary for all organisational stakeholders in the new ERP system to be regularly updated with the progress of the new information system implementation – this will help to significantly reduce the level of confusion which is experienced by stakeholders concerning the new system and will also make them feel like they are playing a more important role in the change (Dezdar & Ainin, 2011). An empirical study which was conducted by Grabot, Mayere and Bazet (2008) on the case of a US company which was in the process of implementing a new ERP system found that the failure of the communications strategy which was implemented by the organisation‟s senior managers meant that employees were not fully convinced of the need for the new system. The failure of communication in this case had a long term impact on employee morale, resulting in the annual rate of turnover among staff within the financial and accounting divisions of the company increasing to 100 per cent three years after the new system was fully implemented.

The need for senior managers to embark on a clear strategy of communication with their stakeholders is emphasised as being crucial for the overall success of the ERP project by Wenrich and Ahmad (2009). This is due to the fact that all of the stakeholders in the new project need to be fully informed of the benefits which are likely to accrue to them as a result

of the changes in order to obtain their „buy in‟. Research which has been conducted by Ifinedo and Nahar (2009) suggests that senior managers need to begin to communicate effectively with their organisational stakeholders from the very beginning of the process of implementation.

Furthermore, as the communication with stakeholders continues, it is important to ensure that it is consistent in nature, that it provides stakeholders with continued regular updates, that it explains to stakeholders the way in which such change is integrated with the overall vision of the business and how this change will be underpinned by existing systems.

The process of communication with organisational stakeholders needs to be structured in such a way that is sufficient time for stakeholders to get used to the idea of the new system and the changes that it will produce before it is actually implemented.

In addition, senior managers need to ensure that the transition to the new system is eased by providing adequate training and support documentation to all of the relevant stakeholders. Such training would help to increase the level of confidence of employees with respect to their ability to use the new system and help to increase the likelihood that the new system will be fully accepted. Indeed, the failure to provide adequate training to employees has been cited by Wagner and Antonucci (2009) as being an issue which is likely to significantly reduce the likelihood of ERP success. It is therefore necessary to ensure that senior managers within the organisation take charge of the staff training process. In a study which was conducted by Tsai and Hung (2008), it was suggested that those companies which are more effective at implementing new information systems facilitate effective communication by providing their employees with a single point of contact whom they can ask for any particular information. This system of communication is likely to be more effective within larger corporations where it is not always possible for employees to contact senior organisational managers for information.

One way in which regular communication could be ensured in such cases would be for an intranet to be established which would provide stakeholders with access to relevant sources of information. Kuhn and Sutton (2009) suggest that it would be useful for all status updates, company presentations and meeting minutes which are related to the ERP implementation on the intranet so that they can be easily accessed and help to decrease feelings of employee

insecurity and uncertainty. This is expanded upon by Silva et al (2011) who argues that an effective strategy of communication needs to rely on using a range of different forms of media to promote the same message. If only one form of media is used to convey the desired messages about the new ERP system, it is likely that employees will simply be indifferent to the message which is being conveyed, and this is likely to do little to reduce the resistance that employees are likely to have to launch of the project.

Research which has been conducted by Singh (2009) suggests that senior managers within a company which is implementing a new ERP system should also ensure that they prepare their employees for the change in culture which is likely to result as a consequence of the new system. According to Wenrich and Ahmad (2009), the extent to which senior managers deal with cultural change is likely to predict the likelihood of success of the overall ERP system implementation.

Organisational culture is defined by Williams and Pollock (2009, p.18) as the „sense of belonging‟ which exists within an organisation where „people share a common history‟; it is arguably the nature of the culture which exists within an organisation which determines the way in which the stakeholders within that organisation will react to a new system and thus decide its overall success. This is due to the fact that the changes which result from the introduction of a new ERP system are so far reaching that they are likely to trigger fundamental changes within the culture of an organisation. This is expanded upon by Kuhn and Sutton (2009) who go so far as to suggest that organisational culture, and the way in which it is managed, is a key determinant of the success of any form of technological change within an organisation.

Indeed, Nair, Reddy and Samuel (2011) claims that the adequate management of organisational culture is instrumental in determining whether the implementation of a new ERP project will be successful or not. Specifically, it is necessary for a senior manager within the organisation to ensure that the necessary incentives and rewards are established within the company in order to mould the prevailing culture of the organisation to the features of the ERP system. It is important for the employees within the organisation to fully internalise