ARTICULOS ODONTOLOGICOS S.A

As said in the previous chapter, an examination was designed to collect and analyse the data to test the hypothesis of this study and to discover the state of CVCC syllable type in both eras; (i.e., the classical and modern). This examination comprised of selecting 60 CVCC nominal stems in order to investigate their structures in both eras. Secondly, by utilizing Alkhatiib‟s (2002) dictionary of the Qur‟anic readings, the structure(s) for each of these 60 stems and their paradigms were obtained with the assumption that they represent the variations of the classical era for these nominal words. This step is explained in detail in 4.4.2. Following this, the collection of the modern data is outlined in 4.4.3. However, before illustrating the producers that were made to collect the data the subsection 4.2.1 is presented to illustrate the criteria behind the selection of the 60 stems.

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4.2.1 The criteria behind the selection of the investigated stems

The criteria are divided into phonological and non-phonological. Starting with the non- phonological criteria, these 60 stems have been first determined on examining the nominal words which the holy text of the Qur‟an contains. Utilizing the edition of the Qur‟an that is based on ُطبػ ٓػ ضفد the Hafsˁ ʕan ʕaasˁim Qur‟anic reading form, I looked for the three underlying stems ًْؼ ف CaCC-V, ًْؼُف CuCC-V and ًْؼِّف CiCC-V. Generally, I concluded that the holy text of the Qur‟an has CaCC-V stems more than CuCC-V and CiCC-V stems 1

. During this step, I was tracing the CVCC in the holy text without considering the form they surface in, (i.e., whether they were bases for a stem-form or bases for inflected-forms). Therefore, the collected data consists of (i) CVCC roots surface in the holy text in their stem- forms and inflected-forms, (ii) CVCC roots surface in the holy text only in their stem-forms and (iii) CVCC roots surface in the holy text only in their inflected-forms. I did not restrict the collection of the classical data with a condition that restrains the collected data to those that have both stem-forms and inflected-forms. This is done to ensure the width of the collected data. To explain, there is an important restrain that controlled the selection of what are found of roots. This is that all the selected roots are supposed to be part of the vocabulary of the investigated modern Arabic dialects, (i.e., IBA, KħA, ECA and MMA) and not borrowed from MSA. Thus, since I am restrained with what the holy text of the Qur‟an contains of words I had to overlook the surface-forms which a CVCC root exists in the holy text. Otherwise, the amount of collected data would have been reduced to less than 60 stems. Thus, after collecting the stems from the holy text, they were displayed to a native speaker of each investigated dialect to consult him/her whether they are part of the dialect‟s vocabulary. This consult step was expected to reduce the amount of stems which were collected from the holy text. Therefore, intentionally I collected in the early stage of my search for the 60 stems all what were found of CVCC stems in the holy text. This step of collection was manual. As was expected, consulting a native speaker of each investigated dialect reduced the first amount of collected stems. The collected stems were then sifted with the aim of making sure that I select only the active stems in terms of their usage in the modern investigated dialects. The final selection of the stems, which are introduced in the tables 4.1a, 4.1b and 4.1c below, went through another filter that is the phonological criteria.

1

Worth mentioning, even though Hamid (1984) formed his corpus of CVCC roots using sources that differ from the sources that are used in this study but he also observed that CaCC roots are more than the CuCC and CiCC roots.

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The phonological criteria were motivating the diversity as much as possible. The first criterion that controlled the selection is that the three types of CVCC roots, (i.e., CaCC, CuCC and CiCC) should be tested equally in terms of the amount. Thus, I controlled the type and the amount. Each of CVCC roots type has to be 20. The 20 roots can be seen is table 4.1a, table 4.1b and table 4.1c below. Recall that the forms of SA are used as inputs for all the dialects and variations.

Secondly, multiplicity in terms of the types of consonants that forms the structures of roots, whether glide, liquids, nasals, fricatives, affricates or stops was also considered. This multiplicity can be seen in the column the standard structure in the aforementioned tables. The motive for creating this multiplicity is to test whether there are any relationships between the type of consonants and the change in the syllable structure.

To explain, the glottal stop is a consonant that needs to be considered with some caution considering its state in the classical era and the modern era. For example, in contrast to the standardized form for the word “head.Nom.her” is [raʔs-u-haa] the Arabic vernaculars, as far as I know; do not surface the glottal stop of the root. The „Yaafi‘I‟, a Yemen dialect, surfaces [raas-haa] according to Watson (2007). As a native speaker of KћA dialect, I can confirm that this Yamani‟s realization of this word is the same realization of KћA. Hence, the glottal stop is also substituted with the long /aa/ in KћA in the surface-forms of this word. Thus, the selection of the data in the early stage considered this observed difference by ensuring that the data examined consists of CVʔC and CVCʔ roots. Clearly, the deletion of the glottal stop and the lengthening of the vowel /a/ contribute in avoiding the CVCC syllable type. In addition, notably the two processes contribute to the realization of another syllable type CVVC which is also known to be restricted in SA and CA to pausal position.

Accordingly, there is good evidence to assume that there is a relationship between the realization of underlying consonants and the occurrence of the vowel epenthesis process in modern Arabic. Furthermore, there is evidence that some strategies may be restricted to avoid specific sequences in a language. For instance, in Welsh, Hannahs (2013:91-92) notes that metathesis as a repair strategy is restricted for a small data in which the sequence /-θr/ is prevented from surfacing in codas. He points out that this repair strategy is favoured over epenthesis and deletion which are the more observed types of resolution for the cases that have the potential of violating the sonority sequencing in Welsh. These observations of Hannahs (2013) about the Welsh words with final /-θr/ appear to be similar to those of Arabic words that ends underlyingly with final GC and CG as seen in Hamid (1984) and the above mentioned ʔC, Cʕ. Bearing these in mind, the underlying consonants of the 60 roots were an

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important criterion that was implemented to form diversity that was expected to enhance the examination with more insight in relation to the surfaces that are witnessed in the modern Arabic dialects.

I also included an example of CVCiCi root in the selected data. The significance of

such syllable can be observed from the following monosyllabic stem /dubb/ “bear” which has an underlying geminate:

(1a) [dubb-u-n] “ the contextual form: bear.Nom.Indef” (1b) [dub] “the pausal form of Nom and Gen: bear.Indef” (1c) [dubb-aa] “the pausal form of Acc: bear.Indef”

(1d) [dubb-ii] “1Pers.Sing bear”2 (1e) [dubb-u-naa] “1Pers.Plur. bear.Nom” (1f) [dubb-u-ka] “2Pers.Sing.Masc. bear.Nom” (1g) [dubb-u-ki] “2Pers.Sing.Fem. bear.Nom” (1h) [dubb-u-kumaa] “2Pers.dual. bear.Nom” (1i) [dubb-u-kum] “2Pers.Plur.Masc. bear.Nom” (1j) [dubb-u-kunna] “2Pers.Plur. bear.Nom” (1k) [dubb-u-hu] “3Pers.Sing.Masc bear.Nom” (1l) [dubb-u-haa] “3Pers.Sing.Fem. bear.Nom” (1m) [dubb-u-humaa] “3Pers.dual. bear.Nom” (1n) [dubb-u-hum] “3Pers.Plur.Masc. bear.Nom” (1o) [dubb-u-hunna] “3Pers.Plur.Fem bear.Nom”

Obviously, the formation of the indefinite pausal form of nominative leads to the deletion of not only the suffixes but also the final geminate consonant only in example 1b. This deletion for the final geminate is not limited to the indefinite nominative pausal form. Nonetheless, an example of such type of words is part of the data examined in this study. This examined word is “evil” which has the underlying string /ʃarr/ according to TMS and appears in 18 in table 4.1a.

The last criterion is the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP) which was also considered when selecting the stems. This was done to investigate the relationship between SSP and the occurrences of the epenthesis process. The SSP principle states that the sonority peak is the syllable nucleus whereas the segments that appear in syllable edges are lower in relation to their sonority. Furthermore, it holds that the effects of SSP also appear in the consonant clusters in the edges; hence, typically the closer a consonant is to a nucleus the more sonorous it is.

2 _{Observe that all the pronominal possessive suffixes of SA are consonant-initial except [-ii] 1Pers.Sing. When a}

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The importance of the consideration of SSP is evident in the word “prison” which appears in 18 in the table 4.1c. This word has the structure [siʒn-V] in SA. The voiced fricative /ʒ/ is less sonorant than the followed consonant, which is the nasal /n/. Deleting the case marker V; therefore, causes the realization of the complex coda /ʒn/ which has the potential of violating SSP. Thus, this potential of violation for SSP anticipates the implementation of a repair strategy. Therefore, phonology is expected to operate the vowel insertion here to avoid the violation. In the tables 4.1a, 4.1b and 4.1c, the stems that are expected to show an insertion of vowel epenthesis in the modern Arabic varieties to avoid SSP violation are boldfaced.

Table 4.1a comprises the roots that have the underlying sequence of CaCC. As can be seen, the boldfaced stem-forms are those that have the potential to violate SSP when deleting the vocalic marker (V). These represent 30% of CaCC data.

Number Word Standard Structure

1 ظفٔ “Self” [nafs-V] 2 ذػٚ “Promise” [waʕd-V] 3 زهش “Month” [ʃahr-V] 4 ذجع “Saturday” [sabt-V] 5 قشث “Lightning” [barq-V] 6 زحث “Sea” [baħr-V] 7 طٚص “Spouse” [zawʒ-V] 8 ٗجٚ “Face” [waʒh-V] 9 يلغ “Boiling” [ɣalj-V] 10 عسص “Crop” [zarʕ-V] 11 فشد “Edge” [ħarf-V] 12 ذػس “Thunder” [raʕd-V] 13 تٍو “Dog” [kalb-V] 14 نحل“Meat” [laħm-V] 15 لضف “Bounty” [fadˁl-V] 16 سأر “Head” [raʔs-V] 17 تٍل “Heart” [qalb-V] 18 شش “Evil” [ʃarr-V] 19 ءٟش “Thing” [ʃajʔ-V] 20 عسأ “Earth” [ʔardˁ-V]

Table 4.1a: The standard structures of words with CaCC underlying root sequence

Table 4.1b presents the stem-forms of CuCC roots. The boldfaced of these stem-forms represent 55% and these are the ones that are expected to surface consonant clusters that violate SSP if V is deleted.

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number word Standard Structure

1 ذخأ “Sister” [ʔuxt-V] 2 ءضج “Part” [ʒuzʔ-V] 3 هٍِ “Dominion” [mulk-V] 4 لخث “Stinginess” [buxl-V] 5 نكر “Nook” [rukn-V] 6 زفك “Disbelief” [kufr-V] 7 ٍُظ “Injustice” [ðˁulm-V] 8 زكش “Gratitude” [ʃukr-V] 9 ٖشو “Hate” [kurh-V] 10 فشػ “Custom” [ʕurf-V] 11 تػس “Fright” [ruʕb-V] 12 نهد “Fat” [duhn-V] 13 حجص “Morning” [sˁubħ-V] 14 نكح “Judgment” [ħukm-V] 15 رذع “Excuse” [ʕuðr-V] 16 خٍط “Reconciliation” [sˁulħ-V] 17 عسو “Capability” [wusʕ-V] 18 نزح “Grief” [ħuzn-V] 19 غٕط “Work” [sˁunʕ-V] 20 نسح “Beauty” [ħusn-V]

Table 4.1b: The standard structures of words with CuCC underlying root sequence

Lastly, the 20 stem-forms identified in table 4.1c have the underlying sequence of CiCC as a root. Additionally, 50% of this data are expected to surface with a complex coda that has the potential to violate SSP if V is deleted.

Number Word Standard Structure

1 فؼض “Double” [dˁiʕf-V] 2 قذط “Truth” [sˁidq-V] 3 عزج “Trunk” [ʒiðʕ-V] 4 ةضد “Party” [ħizb-V] 5 هغِ “Muskiness” [misk-V] 6 زئث “Well” [biʔr-V] 7 تئذ “Wolf” [ðiʔb-V] 8 نذإ“Permission” [ʔiðn-V] 9 ظغل “Justice” [qistˁ-V] 10 لجع “Calf” [ʕiʒl-V] 11 ٍُػ “Knowledge” [ʕilm-V] 12 لعف“Action” [fiʕl-V] 13 خٍِ “Salt” [milħ-V] 14 قصس “Provision” [rizq-V] 15 زحس “Magic” [siħr-V] 16 لجر “Leg” [riʒl-V] 17 زجك“Greatness” [kibr-V] 18 نجس “Prison” [siʒn-V] 19 زعش “Poetry” [ʃiʕr-V] 20 ءفد“Warmth” [difʔ-V]

91 4.2.2 The collection of the classical data

After selecting the 60 stems based on the aforementioned criteria, a search was initiated to find out the times of occurrence of each root in the Qur‟an. These times of occurrences are counted by counting both the stem-form and the inflected-forms of each of the 60 nominal stems. In addition, it was done to find out the positions of occurrence in the Chapters and verses. This part of search was done electronically using two electronic search engines of the holy text of the Qur‟an. The first belongs to the website: http://www.searchtruth.com, whereas the second is the search engine of http://www.corpus.quran.com. The procedures that were conducted when using the search engine of the two websites are explained next starting with the first website and then moving to the second.

Amongst its conveniences, (e.g., different language translations of the Qur‟an, Hijri- Gregorian date converter and learning Arabic), searchtruth offers an effective means to electronically search for any word in the Qur‟an. The search within the search engine of this website often counted and located all the nominal and verbal forms of the underlying sequence of each of the 60 stems. In other words, it referred me to the exact location of not only the searched nominal stems and their paradigms, but also to other derivations that belong to the same word-family. Thus, to precise the amount of data to what this research is concerned with, a manual search for the amount of data of each of the 60 stems was conducted. Thus, I looked to all the verses which the website located for a searched stem to precise only those that match the required forms, (i.e., singular nominal with the underlying sequence of CaCC-V, CuCC-V and CiCC-V and their inflected-forms). Also, it was noticed that the search engine for some stems did not locate me to all the positions that I know that the stem appears in. Thus, the shortages in the search engine were overcome by my knowledge.

For example, in the process of searching the nominal word “month” /ʃahr/ in the holy text, I utilized the Arabic orthography system and wrote the word as: شٙش in the website search engine. The electronic search resulted in 17 occurrences in the text of the Qur‟an. These 17 occurrences were then manually searched and tested in terms of corresponding to what I know about the positions of this stem in the Qur‟an. The final result ended with only 12 occurrences that matched the required forms. Thus, the remained occurrences were disregarded on the bases that they do not match the word-form investigated. Notably, the disregarded occurrences are either the duel forms or plural forms of the word “month”.

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Another note about this word is that it does not appear in the holy text in any inflected-form. The number of occurrences and the position of occurrences of each stem are documented in the second and third columns in the tables that appear in appendix 2.

As said, the search is for both the stem-form and inflected-forms of each of the 60 stems. The stem-forms are singular nominal that appear in the holy text without being inflected with a pronominal suffix. Accordingly, if any of the 60 roots appears in the holy text with the definite marker /ʔal-/, any case marker /-a,-u,-i/ or the indefinite marker/-n/ I would consider the occurrence of this stem as a stem-form. On the other hand, the inflected-forms are what appear in the holy text with a pronominal possessive suffix attached to, (e.g., 3Pers.Sing.Fem /-haa/). The logic in such action is related to the nature of the affixes, (i.e., the definite marker, case markers and the indefinite markers) in contrast to the pronominal suffixes. To explain, the definite marker /ʔal-/ is a prefix which means it does not typically affect the realization of the last consonantal sequence of the investigated CVCC roots. As for the case markers and nunation, as said before, these suffixes are not deleted in contextual realizations of stem-forms. Since the contextual realizations are more than the pausal realizations in the holy text, typically a stem-form surfaces with these suffixes. This typicality is because the holy text belongs to the classical era.

There are also specific prefixes, (e.g., [fa-], [bi-] and [la-]), which occurs in structures carrying different semantic component that affects the semantic meaning of an expression. They also have syntactic effects on the case marker that is realized in the word which they are attached to in terms of the grammatical relation that it marks, hence in terms of its phonetic value that surfaces. These prefixes appear attached to a stem-form and inflected-form of a word in the holy text. The transcriptions of words in the Appendix 2 display these prefixes. However, since they have no specific effects on the phonological realization of the final –CC they are not discussed.

These were commonly the procedures which each stem of the 60 underwent. However, I had to use another website search engine for some words, (e.g., [fadˁl-V] “Bounty”) because later I faced difficulties when I tried to use the search engine of the first website. The second search engine belongs to the website http://corpus.quran.com. I continued using the search engine of this website whenever there was a need to search the holy text. The search engine of this website has some linguistic facilities (e.g., it offers a syntactic tree bank). However, it displayed the same limitation, (i.e., referring to different words that belong to the same word-family of the searched words). The focal point from

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mentioning this is to advise that generally the same procedures were conducted when using the search engines of the two aforementioned websites.

It should be noted that there are many Qur‟an search engines, and even though I utilized these two websites search engines I cannot claim that they offer the best tools or best results. Their selection as search engines was arbitrary and mainly to reduce the time of manually searching the holy text myself. In another words, this electronic search was a step in the search that saved time and effort.

Finally, the results of the search of each of the sixty roots are provided in Appendix 2, which consists of three tables 1, 2 and 3. The first column in these Tables introduces the word according to its basic meaning. The second column provides the results of the search in relation to number of occurrences in the Qur‟an text. The third column allocates the exact Chapters and verses in which the investigated stem and its paradigms appear. The fourth column presents the articulations of the words as found in Alkhatiib‟s dictionary. The procedures that were conducted to obtain these structures from the dictionary are explained in the next subsection.

4.2.2.1 Alkhatiib‟s dictionary of the Qur‟anic readings; a written corpus

According to Alkhatiib (2002, vol. 11, p. 21), the process of collecting the Qur‟anic readings and publishing them in dictionaries has begun in the third Islamic century. Calculations estimate this to be around 815 C.E. A prominent name who participated in such process is Abu ʕubajd AlQaasim Ibn Sallaam (451/-224 A.H. /770-835 C.E.) who collected Qur‟anic readings from 25 expert readers. Another collector is Ahmed Ibn Gubajr Ibn Muhammad AlKuufii (d. 258/871 A.H. /C.E.) who collected mainly five each from a distinctive Islamic region. Other names are also mentioned, however, these two are only offered as examples. As far as I can see, the process of collecting Qur‟anic readings has enhanced the understanding of the essence of the Qur‟anic readings in general. However, this stage was preceded by a period in which the collecting of the Qur‟anic readings was mainly an oral process. The collection of the Qur‟anic readings did not depend on documentation which distinguishes the collection in the third century. The development to the