93. In 2001, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that there were 19.8 million refugees, asylum-seekers and others of concern to the Organization.62 UNHCR also estimates that women and chil- dren constitute 80 per cent of the world’s refugees and IDPs.
94. Each phase of displacement, including initial displacement, flight, protection and assistance in refugee and displaced persons camps, resettle- ment and reintegration has different implications for female and male refu- gees and IDPs. Flight is often triggered by severe sex discrimination and gender-based persecution which may combine with discrimination and abuse on other grounds, such as ethnicity, religion and class. Refugee, re- turnee and internally displaced women and girls often suffer discrimination
and human rights abuses throughout their flight, settlement and return. For example, women and girls may be forced into providing sexual services to men and adolescent boys in exchange for safe passage for themselves or their family or to obtain necessary documentation or other assistance.63 Children are at an increased risk of becoming separated from their parents, families or guardians. Girl children who become separated from their par- ents may face the risk of sexual abuse and bein g forced to serve in fighting forces and groups.
95. In both refugee and IDP camps, women and girls can be at risk of human rights abuses due to the weakening of existing community and fa m- ily protection mechanisms. Internally displaced women and girls are sub- jected to “physical and sexual attacks, rape, domestic violence and sexual harassment, increased spousal battering and marital rape”.64 For example, in Liberia, among the more than 1 million returning internally displaced per- sons were many women and girls who were struggling with the conse- quences of rape and unwanted pregnancies.
96. Increased militarization and the presence of both civilians and com- batants in camps heighten insecurity for all refugees and IDPs. Poorly lit camps, or those that lack adequate security, place women and girls at heightened risk of attack by males inside and outside of the camps. Respon- sibilities of women and girls heighten their risk of injury outside the camp. 97. Crossing mine fields or walking near military encamp ments to search for water and firewood, for example, subjects them to risk of injury from landmines, crossfire and sexual attacks. According to reports from camps in northern Uganda, women and girls have to spend hours collecting water, which puts them at risk of abductio n and sexual assault.65
98. Both refugee and internally displaced women and girls may become vic- tims of hostage-taking for purposes of enslavement and trafficking into slavery, coerced or enforced prostitution, abduction and forced military recruitment for participation in hostilities or support of combatants. Refugee and internally dis- placed women and adolescent girls may also be subjected to forced marriages and to being sold into marriage. They may be victimized through slavery and rape and may be forcibly recruited into armies.66
99. One of the most negative impacts of uprooting is the weakening or loss of social support networks. This has several consequences for u prooted women and girls which have security implications relating to the ability to live free from harassment or abuse, to escape, to defend oneself or to gain access to the assistance and protection necessary to survive.67 These cons e-
quences may result in sexual exploitation. Furthermore, the establishment of orphanages for war-affected children separated from their families and communities may create conditions conducive to trafficking in children, particularly girls.
100. During the determination of refugee status and other asylum proce- dures that those seeking refuge encounter upon arrival, lack of knowledge about the effect of trauma and the cultural barriers to openly discussing traumatic experiences, particularly of sexual violence, can result in dis- criminatory treatment. Furthermore, domestic laws and policies on immi- gration that do not address the differential impact of armed conflict on women and girls may force them to return to their countries, despite the fact that they risk further violence and discrimination. Women and girls may also be forced to continue in abusive marriages in order to avoid withdrawal of visas and forced return to countries in conflict. In circumstances referred to as “refuge”, “asylum” or “safe haven”, the combination of generalized insecurity in uprooted communities and gender-blind programming can combine to create threatening experiences for women, adolescents and chil- dren who are at the greatest risk. Other central issues are the issuance of identity cards – whether women and children are granted their own or whether the male “head-of-household” retains all cards.
101. In conflict situations adults need protection and are less able to sup- port and defend their families. Women and adolescent girls usually have to take up additional responsibilities if families and communities are split up. Men and adolescent boys in camps and settlements for refugees and inter- nally displaced persons, on the other hand, often suffer from a dangerous level of inactivity. This volatile combination of overburden for some and inactivity and consequent frustration for others can become explosive. Inc i- dents of domestic violence can escalate. For example, all married women interviewed in Burundi reported that they had experienced domestic vio- lence during their time as refugees.68
102. Corruption or inequitable access to essential goods and services has had a negative effect on the nutritional status, personal security and phys ical and mental health of women and girls in refugee and internally displaced situations. When humanitarian assistance is not based on consultation with women and does not take their needs into account, women and girls may be left with few options and forced to turn to prostitution in e xchange for goods and services.
103. Difficulties faced by refugee and internally displaced women and girls are often neglected within camp communities. This is especially true for those concerning sexual harassment or violence, domestic violence, and is- sues relating to sexual and reproductive health. At times there is inadequate or non-existent provision to maintain hygiene during menstruation. This has resulted in adolescent girls not attending school and women missing the dis- tribution of assistance. Other issues include separate latrines for males and females, ensuring that latrine doors close properly and appropriate places to dispose of feminine hygiene materials.69
104. In situations of rape, some women and adolescent girls may be pres- sured or forced to abort, as occurred in IDP camps in Ca mbodia. Pregnant women and girls may seek illegal and unsafe abortions. Those who give birth may do so under unsafe and unhygienic conditions, with first-time mothers at heightened risk. Little is known about the children who are born of forced pregnancy or how women and adolescent girls with these children reintegrate in their communities.70
105. Distribution of food directly to women in camps helps to ensure that food is consumed by the target groups and is not diverted for other pur- poses, thus enhancing food security in families. Food security can also re- quire the provision and maintenance of water points and grinding mills and the consideration of protection concerns associated with the collection of water and firewood. Neglect of these issues presents risks to women within the uprooted community and potential problems with the host community. 106. Ensuring security of livelihoods, access to economic activities and training in survival skills, health issues, leadership, and conflict resolution is important for the ability of refugee and internally displaced women and girls to cope under difficult circumstances and to ensure their sense of dig- nity and self-esteem. Without secure livelihood opportunities, recourse to prostitution becomes more common. In Colombia, for instance, large nu m- bers of internally displaced women and adolescent girls reported that they had no alternative but prostit ution to support themselves.71
107. Increasing the involvement of women and adolescent girls in the plan- ning and management of camp life is necessary to meet the priorities and needs of women and girls as well as to ensure effective camp manage ment. The participation of women in decisions regarding the o rganization of camps, the layout of shelters and facilities, and the distribution of supplies is critical to reducing the risks women and girls face in camp situations. Such risks include sexual exploitation by ca mp managers or displaced men
in charge of distributing the essentials for survival; the provision of inap- propriate clothing to women and girls which puts them at risk of marginali- zation and physical abuse by all or part of the community; the rape and murder of women and children who go unprotected outside the camp p e- rimeter in search of water, food or firewood; and the rape of unaccom- panied women and girls concentrated in one area of a camp without su p- plemental protection.72
108. Refugees and internally displaced can be subject to cultural biases, especially in contexts where there is a marked difference in the cultures of the refugees and the host community. In camps where protection of re - fugees is weak, “culture” has been sometimes used to explain away certain crimes, resulting in a failure to address the issues of security and protection. There have been instances where prostitution, brewing of alcohol, traffick- ing in drugs and other illegal activities have been considered “normal” ac- tivities – part of the refugees’ culture and background – by authorities re- sponsible for the camps, despite the fact that they lead to an increase in gender-based violence.