Aspectos éticos y legales:

It is essential for all researchers to ensure trustworthiness of their studies (Clough and Nutbrown, 2007). The quality of research relies heavily on the reliability of the methods used and the validity of the conclusions drawn (Silverman, 2005). The reliability of a psychological measuring device is the extent to which it gives consistent measurements and the greater the consistency of measurement, the greater the reliability of the tool (Banyard and Grayson, 2000).

The validity basically checks whether the test measures what it is supposed to measure.

In this study, I took cognisance of trustworthiness of the findings collected as a measure of validity and reliability by following Guba‟s model on identification of four aspects of trustworthiness, which includes truth-value, applicability, consistency and neutrality (Krefting, 1991). Trustworthiness was achieved through the crystallization process in the study. This was relevant to this study due to its qualitative nature.

Truth-value is important in qualitative research. I provided feedback to participants on the transcriptions in order to confirm whether the transcription is a true reflection of their responses.

Participants had the opportunity to provide their opinions regarding the accuracy of the interpretation of the transcriptions (Krefting, 1991).

Applicability in this study was relevant because the purpose of this study was to obtain a general sense of the extent to which the Grade 11 LO curriculum prepares learners for active citizenship in a democracy (Krefting, 1991). In terms of consistency for this study, there were common themes arising from the experiences of the participants as Grade 12 learners and LO educators.

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With regard to neutrality of the analysis, the findings of this research were based solely on information provided by the informants or participants and on the conditions of the research, and not on other forms of biases (Krefting, 1991).

In order to ensure that an investigation has been conducted in an ethical manner, attention was paid to the validity and reliability of the instrumentation, the appropriateness of the data analysis techniques, the degree of relationship between conclusions drawn and the data upon which they rest, as suggested in Guba and Lincoln (2000).

Prior to the construction of the questionnaire and interview schedule, the literature was reviewed.

A variety of successfully administered questionnaires and interview guidelines designed by other researchers were examined to determine whether the existing instruments could be used to gather the necessary information for the study.

In developing the instruments the following procedures were followed:

 The instruments were discussed with the supervisors and colleagues in the same field of study who could offer useful suggestions for the improvement of the items in the instruments;

 Earlier in this chapter it was stated that official policy documents were studied. In order to crystallize the data, the relevant policy documents were compared;

 The validity and reliability in research that uses tapes and transcripts was considered; and

 In discussing reliability, it is noted that "working with tapes and transcripts eliminates at one stroke many of the problems that ethnographers have with the unspecified accuracy of field notes and with the limited public access to them" (Perakyla, 1995: 201- 206). The advantage of using tapes in this study is that they can be studied more than once in order to verify the statements. The intention is to eliminate the possibility of misrepresenting the focus group interviewees. The transcripts of interviews were sent back to participants for verification, comments and changes.

The advantage of using questionnaires in this study was that large amounts of data were collected in a short period of time in a neutral setting under supervision.

126 4.8 Ethical considerations

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines for research suggested by Goodwin (2002: 38 – 54) and Wellington (2000: 54 – 57). All participants were treated with respect and sensitivity. As noted earlier, before conducting the research, permission to conduct research was requested from the WCED, MSED Office and schools. Informed consent was obtained from LO educators and consent from the parents of Grade 12 learners. It should be noted that most research projects conform to widely accepted principles such as: obtained informed consent, ensure that participation is voluntary, and preserve confidentiality and privacy (Swann and Pratt, 2003: 18).

Ethical clearance was requested from and granted by the University of the Western Cape (UWC) to conduct the research. The WCED and the MSED office granted permission to conduct research in the schools (see appendix A). A total of seven LO educators and 757 Grade 12 learners in the MSED were invited to participate in the study, of which 461 Grade 12 learners participated. All participants received a formal letter of consent requesting their participation in the research (see appendix B). The letter provided information about the nature of the study and the conditions for participation. It also included an attached reply slip which required signatures as consent from both the LO educators as well as the relevant principals of the schools represented. Parental consent for minors were required and obtained.

4.8.1 Human rights and values

I was committed to conduct this research ethically by respecting the human rights, value orientations and religious denominations of all participants. I undertook not to allow my personal value orientations and beliefs to influence this research in any way. All participants were treated fairly, with consideration, with respect and with honesty.

4.8.2 Informed consent

Participants were not coerced to partake in this study. I entered into an agreement with participants that clarified the nature of the research and the responsibilities of both parties. They

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were requested to provide written consent after being fully informed about the aims and objectives of the research. In the event of the Grade 12 learners, some of whom were minors, consent was required from the parents or legal guardians of the learners participating in the study. No attempt was made to deceive or mislead participants in any manner. Openness and transparency were employed throughout the study.

4.8.3 Integrity

The researcher protected the integrity and reputation of the research by ensuring that the research was conducted in such a manner that it adhered to the highest ethical standards. In respect of choosing participants, there was no discrimination based on sex, race, age, religion, status, educational background, or physical abilities.

4.8.4 Right to withdraw

Participants had the right to withdraw at any time and no explanation for withdrawal was necessary. The researcher exercised respect and reflexivity in the exercise of this right, informing participants thereof at the outset. However, none of the participants who joined the study opted to withdraw from the processes.

4.8.5 Privacy and confidentiality

The participants were assured of anonymity. Their identities were concealed, and the transcripts were not to be accessed by just anyone. Personal or intimate questions were avoided in order to ensure privacy. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained at every stage of the study.

Finally, feedback was given to participants as part of the final dissemination process, but only on request.

4.9 Summary and conclusion

This chapter described the interrelated nature of the aims of the study, the theoretical framework, and the research methodology adopted. It outlined the research paradigm and design that framed this study and described the research context and the participants who engaged in the different

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phases of data collection. A description of the data collection procedures and data analysis was then provided. Data collection methods as well as the analysis processes engaged in to allow the findings to emerge are explored in some depth. Justification for the trustworthiness of the research and ethical concerns that were considered are presented in the latter part of the section.

The chapter that follows presents the findings of the study.

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