Aspectos fundamentales de la República Dominicana

Ackerman (2001:105) describes some of the most important developmental tasks during the adolescent phase:

 The acceptance of body changes;

 The development of an integrated gender role identity;  The development of a personal identity;

 Preparation, including exploration and decision-making, regarding a future career;

 The development of emotional control and sensitivity to the emotions of others;  The development of more permanent relationships.

Psychological challenges involve the formation of a personal identity. Personal identity involves the skill to differentiate ourselves from others developing into a unique individual.

Erikson describes this development task as one asking the question “Who am I and what can I be?” Erikson uses the term “identity crisis” when explaining this phase. Although the adolescent phase is the phase which focuses on the development of the identity of the adolescent, Erikson points out that each stage that came before and that follows this phase has its own ‘crisis’ and that the need for the individual to go through each phase influences the way the adolescent perceives himself. The stage of Identity seems to be the synthesis of earlier stages and the anticipation of later ones. The previous stages the development depended upon what is done to the individual and from the adolescent phase development depends primarily upon what the adolescent does from now on. Life for the adolescent therefore can become more complex, struggling with social interactions to become part of the wider society. The adolescent may find himself in a state of ‘identity confusion’ since commitments in the wider society are asked for before particular identity roles were formed. The problem with role confusion is that teens may sink into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities. Society normally makes allowances for youth to ‘find themselves’ which Erikson terms a ‘moratorium’. Erikson believes that it is essential to have enough space and time to experiment and explore to develop a sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is. A reluctance to commit can haunt a person into his mature years.

In the search for the self adolescence is often a time of extremes, experimenting, discarding different roles, developing strong views and judgments. It can be seen as a high-risk time, if the individual has been exposed to a single-incident trauma or trauma developing over a period of time (Casey, Jones & Hare 2008; Fargher & Dooley 2011; Geldard & Geldard 2010; Levine & Kline 2007), resulting in unresolved issues that can

interfere with the way the adolescent adapts to the challenges of adolescence, which in turn influences adult functioning (Fargher & Dooley 2011; Prachett & Yehuda 2011; van der Kolk 2007).

Biological changes are defined by (Arnett 2007) as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth. Biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight and strength. These changes happen at different ages over a period of time. Early and late maturation have advantage and disadvantages for the adolescent. Early maturation for boys seems beneficial whereas for the early maturing girls can cause disruptions in existing relationships and these girls tend to develop relationships with older boys. Late maturation can result in the adolescent feeling embarrassed, self-conscious and anxious about their appearance and feeling out of step with their peers (Ackerman 2001; Geldard & Geldard 2010).

Piaget explains the cognitive development of the adolescent as the stage when the adolescents’ thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and the egocentric thoughts decrease, allowing the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective (Arnett 2007). They can therefore more easily comprehend proverbs, metaphors and analogies, which permits them to appreciate different ways in which language can be used to convey messages such using metaphors and sarcasm. They develop the ability to imagine possible and impossible events, solve problems and less likely to accept facts as absolute truths (Albert & Steinberg 2011; Smetana & Villalobos 2009).

They also have a desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance. Balance between the development of the adolescents’ own identity and integration with society is needed. When adolescents cannot achieve balance, their sense of being valued by others may be reduced (Geldard & Geldard 2010). The development of a social identity is affected by the environment the adolescent grows up in. A child who grows up in a more privileged environment is more likely to be exposed to more opportunities and more positive situations. Whereas an adolescent from an inner city or environment which is crime-ridden is more likely to be exposed to situations that could be negative to their development and have a major affect on future decisions, exposure to positive environments could contribute to a more successful identity development (Steinberg 2008).

Moral development, according to Kohlberg, is concerned with ‘how children come to internalize their parents’ values and teachings’ (Wenar & Kerig 2006:58). Geldard and Geldard (2010:15) adopted Kohlberg’s model, which outlines the stages of moral development:

Stage one: pre-conventional morality (age 4-10 years). In this stage a child will do good or avoid wrong with a motive of either avoiding punishment or receiving a reward.

Stage two: conventional morality (age 4-10 years). The child learns to conform to the society in which they live. Doing good or avoiding wrong depends on the approval of older people. Thinking is absolutist and inflexible – right is right and wrong is wrong.

Stage three: post-conventional morality (age 14 years onwards). The adolescent becomes aware of human rights and judges behavior accordingly. They develop clear ideas about their beliefs and are prepared to stand up for them. They therefore do not act out of fear or need for approval anymore.

It cannot be guaranteed that all young people reach stage three. It seems that for some young people morality is linked with rewards or not getting caught which is typical of stage one. Gender difference, intellectual ability and the context in which the adolescent lives also influence their moral development (Wenar & Kerig 2006).