Otros aspectos y oportunidades de cooperación en el marco de la Alianza del

All participants named some form of sexual control as a justification given for FGC, as mentioned in the introduction it was difficult to know if this was coming directly from the participants point of view or the wider community. The following chapter will build on from these justifications by providing the sexual implications of FGC.

Justifications were heavily embedded in beliefs around women’s sexuality and the importance placed on the hymen and virginity. This became apparent as both women and men spoke of preservation, purity and being untouched until marriage. This was further linked to pride, and women who were uncut were automatically believed to not be virgins, there was also stigma attached to being de-infibulated before marriage as this was a sign of sexual freedom.

“Yeah like my mum was very, very, disappointed it was like as if she had lost a daughter basically that’s how bad it is, because they see it like you’re just going to go out there and just like I don’t know like they just feel like you’re not the virgin perfect daughter that they want to eventually marry off”.

- Amiina, Female, 21, Somali (Has FGC)

Amiina highlights how the shame and disappointment her parents felt resembled “loosing” a daughter; a response which demonstrates the importance placed on infibulation until marriage. Justifications of FGC also included helping to keep the girl ‘clean’, this term was used to refer to hygiene which I have discussed above, but also in relation to sexual behaviours. Families were held responsible for presenting the ‘perfect virgin’ daughter for marriage and in some affected communities this was reflected in higher bride prices if the girl had FGC. Many of the women felt there was miss-education surrounding the hymen, its elasticity and bleeding at intercourse which is expected.

“If the women are not cut the men think we are not virgins and will say we are not virgins”.

-Uba, Female, 26, Somali (Does not have FGC)

“In our culture, there’s a lot of suppressing female sexuality and stuff I mean that’s the whole reason given for performing FGM back home it’s like oh to preserve you so then you’re like untouched for when you get married so you’re pure and a virgin it’s ridiculous”.

-Zafeera, Female, 19, Sudanese (Has FGC)

“Yeah definitely not, it’s like very disgusting and it’s not allowed in the religion or culture, it’s a shame maybe some people they do illegally secretly in some way, but generally no and women in our cultures girls

when they do marriage they have to be still tight it’s not to be like wide, you know about the membranes, so it has to be like you know when girls do sex the first time”.

-Raman, Male, 36, Kurdish (Wife has FGC)

The quote from Zafeera describes the justification of FGC being to preserve virginity as ridiculous, in comparison to the quote by Raman which emphasises the importance of the girl’s virginity and the shame of sex before marriage, this demonstrates the differences in opinions surrounding not only virginity but the expectations of women and FGC.

Superstitions were common in the justification of FGC and this included inappropriate sexual behaviour and the function of the clitoris.

“People tell you different things like the clitoris is an evil thing in the body and it makes you very randy…so sometimes when a woman feels like she’s exceptionally randy she wants to have it removed or if she feels that things are not working in her favour and somebody has advised her to take it off because you know that might be the reason they go ahead to do those things”.

-Abeni, Female, 37, Nigerian (Has FGC)

The framing of the clitoris as evil could further drive the practice and justify the control over women’s bodies and sexuality. This further alludes to the idea that FGC is a form of protection for the whole community and not just the woman.

There was general consensus that FGC was performed to regulate, control and reduce women’s sexual freedom whilst providing them with a ‘normal’ sex drive. Without FGC women were believed to be too wild and promiscuous.

“They are not being such sexually sensitive she will stay quiet and silent, so this is the reason”.

- Roza, Female, 32, Kurdish (Has FGC)

“So sometimes when a woman feels like she’s exceptionally randy she wants to have it removed”.

-Abeni, Female, 37, Nigerian (Has FGC)

In this respect, it is interesting to consider some of the male participants views and how they frame women’s sexuality.

“I’m not sure but they have to protect the girl if she is circumcised then she can have normal sex, but if not, then this can become super and very high extra, extra, extra sexual sense and maybe they cannot control it”. - Zamo, Male, 35, Kurdish (Sister has FGC)

“It’s the idea that if a woman does not get it done then she will just be too wild and promiscuous, because women are naturally promiscuous and if you get this done it’s a way of regulating that behaviour and controlling them”.

- Omari, Male, 25, Sudanese (Mother and half-sister (father’s daughter) have FGC)

These quotes demonstrate the fears and superstitions around women being overly sexual and not having a ‘normal’ sex drive if uncut. Women were framed as naturally promiscuous and this being a practice that regulated and controlled sexual behaviour. It is interesting to note that a woman with a high sex drive could potentially be framed as abnormal and out of control, it is likely that this would not fit the wider gendered expectations and therefore risk social sanctions. It was also suggested mainly by Kurdish

men that women’s sex drive was increased by the hot climate, therefore FGC was necessary.

“It reduces their pleasure because maybe they believe that our region is hot so maybe woman is more effected than man if they don’t do it maybe yeah”.

-Talan, Male, 34, Kurdish (Mother has FGC)

“Because it’s hotter environment stuff like that you know, because the environment and because it stimulates woman more”.

-Simku, Male, 42, Kurdish

When Talan claims that women will be more affected than men by the weather, he is referring to sexual arousal, this is also supported by Simku’s claim that the weather stimulates women more. It is unlikely that the warmer climate would be used as a justification for it being practiced in the UK, suggesting that this would not be used alone and instead accompany wider justifications.

Two common frames were applied in relation to sexual control through FGC, these were prevention and protection. FGC was seen as a practice that prevented sex before marriage, infidelity and pleasure associated with sex; in turn protecting women and the wider society.

“The reason behind cutting the clitoris it’s because they believe it’s a sensitive part of the body that makes women to have a higher sex appetite so what we are going to do we are going to remove it so that they don’t sleep around… the element of control in the you know women sexuality is shocking and it comes to a point where it’s the mutilation of the body that helps them to achieve that then you know there is a very big problem”. -Aluna, Female, 41, Kenyan (Has FGC)

“They say that if she hasn’t been through it her sexuality will be too high she will be too demanding all the time saying sex, sex, it’s to oppress your sexuality actually you see they don’t want you to be willing to have sex all the time because they don’t want you to have that good feelings when you’re having sex”.

-Samira, Female, 36, Guinean (Has FGC)

FGC was justified as it was believed to protect girl’s innocence, purity, dignity and reputation. It was believed to protect them from temptation and sexual feelings at a young age, some suggested this started to happen at 8 years old, whilst others stated around 14- 15 years old. FGC was also justified as a way to protect girls if men asked them for sex.

“I think what my mums told me is that and what she’s hinted at me is that it’s a control kind of thing and she said if you’re now in a compromising situation like with a guy there’s more ground for you to say no”.

- Dinka, Female, 20, Kenyan (Does not have FGC, but mother does) “If there’s no such an operation the daughter may go and do whatever she wants meet men and this (FGC) is something to protect the young person’s dignity or something like that, which is not based on truth”.

-Dalamar, Male, 58, Somali

Here Dalamar disputes the idea that FGC protects a woman’s dignity by stating that it is not based on truth. He could be suggesting one of two things; either that young women can still meet men despite having FGC and therefore it is not a valid justification, or that their dignity is not related to whether the young woman meets men or not.

In addition to this, male sexual pleasure was often seen as more important than women’s and this is reflected further in the next chapter.

“A lot of women…in my culture for instance after they have children and stuff, they like to be closed again so that they can like remain tight for their husbands or like it’s all for male pleasure…”. -Amiina, Female, 21, Somali (Has FGC)

Amiina discusses the use of re-infibulation after children specifically for male pleasure and ‘remaining tight’, this suggests the justifications for FGC can extend beyond marriage and the initial desire to control women’s sexuality.