ASPECTOS RELEVANTES A TENER EN CUENTA PARA EVALUAR LA

It is a matter of astonishment to many that the luscious mango, Mangifera indica L., one of the most celebrated of tropical fruits, is a member of the family Anacardiaceae–

notorious for embracing a number of highly poisonous plants. The extent to which the mango tree shares some of the characteristics of its relatives will be explained further on.

The universality of its renown is attested by the wide usage of the name, mango in English and Spanish and, with only slight variations in French (mangot, mangue,

manguier), Portuguese (manga, mangueira), and Dutch (manja). In some parts, of Africa, it is called mangou, or mangoro. There

are dissimilar terms only in certain tribal dialects.

Fig. 59: Some mangoes (Mangifera indica) more or less commonly grown in dooryards of southern Florida in the mid-1940's.

Description

The mango tree is erect, 30 to 100 ft (roughly 10-30 m) high, with a broad, rounded canopy which may, with age, attain 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) in width, or a more upright, oval, relatively slender crown. In deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 20 ft (6 in), the profuse, wide-spreading, feeder root system also sends down many anchor roots which penetrate for several feet. The tree is long-lived, some specimens being known to be 300 years old and still fruiting.

Nearly evergreen, alternate leaves are borne mainly in rosettes at the tips of the branches and numerous twigs from which they droop like ribbons on slender petioles 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long. The new leaves, appearing periodically and irregularly on a few branches at a time, are yellowish, pink, deep-rose or wine-red, becoming dark-green and glossy above, lighter beneath. The midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves may be 4 to 12.5 in (10-32 cm) long and 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.4 cm) wide. Hundreds and even as many as 3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25% to 98% male, the rest hermaphroditic, are borne in profuse, showy, erect, pyramidal, branched clusters 2 1/2 to 15 1/2 in (6-40 cm) high. There is great variation in

oblong, or somewhat kidney-shaped, often with a break at the apex, and are usually more or less lop-sided. They range from 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) in length and from a few ounces to 4 to 5 lbs (1.8-2.26 kg). The skin is leathery, waxy, smooth, fairly thick, aromatic and ranges from light-or dark-green to clear yellow, yellow-orange, yellow and reddish-pink, or more or less blushed with bright-or dark-red or purple-red, with fine yellow, greenish or reddish dots, and thin or thick whitish, gray or purplish bloom, when fully ripe. Some have a "turpentine" odor and flavor, while others are richly and

pleasantly fragrant. The flesh ranges from pale-yellow to deep-orange. It is essentially peach-like but much more fibrous (in some seedlings excessively so-actually "stringy");

is extremely juicy, with a flavor range from very sweet to subacid to tart.

There is a single, longitudinally ribbed, pale yellowish-white, somewhat woody stone, flattened, oval or kidney-shaped, sometimes rather elongated. It may have along one side a beard of short or long fibers clinging to the flesh cavity, or it may be nearly fiberless and free. Within the stone is the starchy seed, monoembryonic (usually single-sprouting) or polyembryonic (usually producing more than one seedling).

Origin and Distribution

Native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands, the mango has been cultivated, praised and even revered in its homeland since Ancient times.

Buddhist monks are believed to have taken the mango on voyages to Malaya and eastern Asia in the 4th and 5th Centuries B.C. The Persians are said to have carried it to East Africa about the 10th Century A.D. It was commonly grown in the East Indies before the earliest visits of the Portuguese who apparently introduced it to West Africa early in the 16th Century and also into Brazil. After becoming established in Brazil, the mango was carried to the West Indies, being first planted in Barbados about 1742 and later in the Dominican Republic. It reached Jamaica about 1782 and, early in the 19th Century, reached Mexico from the Philippines and the West Indies.

In 1833, Dr. Henry Perrine shipped seedling mango plants from Yucatan to Cape Sable at the southern tip of mainland Florida but these died after he was killed by Indians. Seeds were imported into Miami from the West Indies by a Dr. Fletcher in 1862 or 1863. From these, two trees grew to large size and one was still fruiting in 1910 and is believed to have been the parent of the 'No. 11' which was commonly planted for many years

thereafter. In 1868 or 1869, seeds were planted south of Coconut Grove and the resultant trees prospered at least until 1909, producing the so-called 'Peach' or 'Turpentine' mango which became fairly common. In 1872, a seedling of 'No. 11' from Cuba was planted in Bradenton. In 1877 and 1879, W.P. Neeld made successful plantings on the west coast but these and most others north of Ft. Myers were killed in the January freeze of 1886.

In 1885, seeds of the excellent 'Bombay' mango of India were brought from Key West to Miami and resulted in two trees which flourished until 1909. Plants of grafted varieties were brought in from India by a west coast resident, Rev. D.G. Watt, in 1885 but only two survived the trip and they were soon frozen in a cold spell. Another unsuccessful importation of inarched trees from Calcutta was made in 1888. Of six grafted trees that

arrived from Bombay in 1889, through the efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture, only one lived to fruit nine years later. The tree shipped is believed to have been a 'Mulgoa' (erroneously labeled 'Mulgoba', a name unknown in India except as originating in Florida). However, the fruit produced did not correspond to 'Mulgoa' descriptions. It was beautiful, crimson-blushed, just under 1 lb (454 g) with golden-yellow flesh. No Indian visitor has recognized it as matching any Indian variety. Some suggest that it was the fruit of the rootstock if the scion had been frozen in the freeze of 1894-95. At any rate, it continued to be known as 'Mulgoba', and it fostered many off-spring along the southeastern coast of the State and in Cuba and Puerto Rico, though it proved to be very susceptible to the disease, anthracnose, in this climate. Seeds from this tree were obtained and planted by a Captain Haden in Miami. The trees fruited some years after his death and his widow gave the name 'Haden' to the tree that bore the best fruit. This variety was regarded as the standard of excellence locally for many decades thereafter and was popular for shipping because of its tough skin.

George B. Cellon started extensive vegetative propagation (patch-budding) of the 'Haden' in 1900 and shipped the fruits to northern markets. P.J. Wester conducted many

experiments in budding, grafting and inarching from 1904 to 1908 with less success.

Shield-budding on a commercial scale was achieved by Mr. Orange Pound of Coconut Grove in 1909 and this was a pioneer breakthrough which gave strong impetus to mango growing, breeding, and dissemination.

Enthusiastic introduction of other varieties by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Plant Industry, by nurserymen, and other individuals followed, and the mango grew steadily in popularity and importance. The Reasoner Brothers Nursery, on the west coast, imported many mango varieties and was largely responsible for the ultimate establishment of the mango in that area, together with a Mr. J.W. Barney of Palma Sola who had a large collection of varieties and had worked out a feasible technique of propagation which he called "slot grafting".

Dr. Wilson Popenoe, one of the early Plant Explorers of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, became Director of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. For more than a quarter of a century, he was a leader in the introduction and propagation of outstanding mangos from India and the East Indies, had them planted at the school and at the Lancetilla Experiment Station at Tela, Honduras, and distributed around tropical America.

In time, the mango became one of the most familiar domesticated trees in dooryards or in small or large commercial plantings throughout the humid and semi-arid lowlands of the tropical world and in certain areas of the near-tropics such as the Mediterranean area (Madeira and the Canary Islands), Egypt, southern Africa, and southern Florida. Local markets throughout its range are heaped high with the fragrant fruits in season and large quantities are exported to non-producing countries.

Altogether, the U.S. Department of Agriculture made 528 introductions from India, the

propagation of new varieties by government agencies and individual growers has been going on ever since. The Mango Form was created in 1938 through the joint efforts of the Broward County Home Demonstration Office of the University of Florida's Cooperative Extension Service and the Fort Lauderdale Garden Club, with encouragement and direction from the University of Florida's Subtropical Experiment Station (now the Agricultural Research and Education Center) in Homestead, and Mrs. William J. Krome, a pioneer tropical fruit grower. Meetings were held annually, whenever possible, for the exhibiting and judging of promising seedlings, and exchanging and publication of descriptions and cultural information.

Meanwhile, a reverse flow of varieties was going on. Improved mangos developed in Florida have been of great value in upgrading the mango industry in tropical America and elsewhere.

With such intense interest in this crop, mango acreage advanced in Florida despite occasional setbacks from cold spells and hurricanes. But with the expanding population, increased land values and cost and shortage of agricultural labor after World War II, a number of large groves were subdivided into real estate developments given names such as "Mango Heights" and "Mango Terrace". There were estimated to be 7,000 acres (2,917 ha) in 27 Florida counties in 1954, over half in commercial groves. There were 4,000 acres (1,619 ha) in 1961. Today, mango production in Florida, on approximately 1,700 acres (688 ha), is about 8,818 tons (8,000 MT) annually in "good" years, and valued at $3 million. Fruits are shipped not only to northern markets but also to the United Kingdom, Netherlands, France and Saudi Arabia. In advance of the local season, quantities are imported into the USA from Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and, throughout the summer, Mexican sources supply mangos to the Pacific Coast consumer. Supplies also come in from India and Taiwan.

A mango seed from Guatemala was planted in California about 1880 and a few trees have borne fruit in the warmest locations of that state, with careful protection when extremely low temperatures occur.

Mangos have been grown in Puerto Rico since about 1750 but mostly of indifferent quality. A program of mango improvement began in 1948 with the introduction and testing of over 150 superior cultivars by the University of Puerto Rico. The south coast of the island, having a dry atmosphere, is best suited for mango culture and substantial quantities of mangos are produced there without the need to spray for anthracnose control. The fruits are plentiful on local markets and shipments are made to New York City where there are many Puerto Rican residents. A study of 16 cultivars was

undertaken in 1960 to determine those best suited to more intense commercial production. Productivity evaluations started in 1965 and continued to 1972.

The earliest record of the mango in Hawaii is the introduction of several small plants from Manila in 1824. Three plants were brought from Chile in 1825. In 1899, grafted trees of a number of Indian varieties, including 'Pairi', were imported. Seedlings became widely distributed over the six major islands. In 1930, the 'Haden' was introduced from

Florida and became established in commercial plantations. The local industry began to develop seriously after the importation of a series of monoembryonic cultivars from Florida. But Hawaiian mangos are prohibited from entry into mainland USA, Australia, Japan and some other countries, because of the prevalence of the mango seed weevil in the islands.

In Brazil, most mangos are produced in the state of Minas, Gerais where the crop amounts to 243,018 tons (22,000 MT) annually on 24,710 acres (10,000 ha). These are mainly seedlings, as are those of the other states with major mango crops–Ceará, Paraibá, Goias, Pernambuco, and Maranhao. Sao Paulo raises about 63,382 tons (57,500 MT) per year on 9,884 acres (4,000 ha). The bulk of the crop is for domestic consumption. In 1973, Brazil exported 47.4 tons (43 MT) of mangos to Europe.

Mango growing began with the earliest settlers in North Queensland, Australia, with seeds brought casually from India, Ceylon, the East Indies and the Philippines. In 1875, 40 varieties from India were set out in a single plantation. Over the years, selections have been made for commercial production and culture has extended to subtropical Western Australia.

There is no record of the introduction of the mango into South Africa but a plantation was set out in Durban about 1860. Production today probably has reached about 16,535 tons (15,000 MT) annually, and South Africa exports fresh mangos by air to Europe.

Kenya exports mature mangos to France and Germany and both mature and immature to the United Kingdom, the latter for chutney-making. Egypt produces 110,230 tons

(100,000 MT) of mangos annually and exports moderate amounts to 20 countries in the Near East and Europe. Mango culture in the Sudan occupies about 24,710 acres (10,000 ha) producing a total of 66,138 tons (60,000 MT) per year.

India, with 2,471,000 acres (1,000,000 ha) of mangos (70% of its fruit-growing area) produces 65% of the world's mango crop–9,920,700 tons (9,000,000 MT). In 1985, mango growers around Hyderabad sought government protection against terrorists who cut down mango orchards unless the owners paid ransom (50,000 rupees in one case).

India far outranks all other countries as an exporter of processed mangos, shipping 2/3 of the total 22,046 tons (20,000 MT). Mango preserves go to the same countries receiving the fresh fruit and also to Hong Kong, Iraq, Canada and the United States. Following India in volume of exports are Thailand, 774,365 tons (702,500 MT), Pakistan and Bangladesh, followed by Brazil. Mexico ranks 5th with about 100,800 acres (42,000 ha) and an annual yield of approximately 640,000 tons (580,000 MT). The Philippines have risen to 6th place. Tanzania is 7th, the Dominican Republic, 8th and Colombia, 9th.

Leading exporters of fresh mangos are: the Philippines, shipping to Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan; Thailand, shipping to Singapore and Malaysia; Mexico, shipping mostly 'Haden' to the United States, 2,204 tons (2,000 MT), annually, also to Japan and Paris; India, shipping mainly 'Alphonso' and 'Bombay' to Europe, Malaya, Saudi Arabia

and Kuwait; Indonesia, shipping to Hong Kong and Singapore; and South Africa shipping (60% 'Haden' and 'Kent') by air to Europe and London in mid-winter.

Chief importers are England and France, absorbing 82% of all mango shipments. Mango consumers in England are mostly residents of Indian origin, or English people who formerly lived in India.

The first International Symposium on Mango and Mango Culture, of the International Society for Horticultural Science, was held in New Delhi, India, in 1969 with a view to assembling a

collection of germplasm from around the world and encouraging cooperative research on rootstocks and bearing behavior, hybridization, disease, storage and transport problems, and other areas of study.

Varieties

The original wild mangos were small fruits with scant, fibrous flesh, and it is believed that natural hybridization has taken place between M. indica and M. sylvatica Roxb. in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher quality has been carried on for 4,000 to 6,000 years and vegetative propagation for 400 years.

Over 500 named varieties (some say 1,000) have evolved and have been described in India. Perhaps some are duplicates by different names, but at least 350 are propagated in commercial nurseries. In 1949, K.C. Naik described 82 varieties grown in South India.

L.B. and R.N. Singh presented and illustrated 150 in their monograph on the mangos of Uttar Pradesh (1956). In 1958, 24 were described as among the important commercial types in India as a whole, though in the various climatic zones other cultivars may be prominent locally. Of the 24, the majority are classed as early or mid-season:

Early:

'Bombay Yellow' ('Bombai')–high quality 'Malda' ('Bombay Green')

'01our' (polyembryonic)–a heavy bearer.

'Pairi' ('Paheri', 'Pirie', 'Peter', 'Nadusalai', 'grape', 'Raspuri', 'Goha bunder') 'Safdar Pasand'

Fig. 60: The tiny, colorful 'Azucar' mango of Santa Marta and Baranquilla, Colombia, is sweet and freestone.

'Suvarnarekha' ('Sundri') Early to Mid-Season:

'Langra' 'Rajapuri' Mid-Season:

'Alampur Baneshan'–high quality but shy bearer

'Alphonso' ('Badami', 'gundu', 'appas', 'khader')–high quality

'Bangalora'('Totapuri', 'collection', 'kili-mukku', abu Samada' in the Sudan)–of highest quality, best keeping, regular bearer, but most susceptible to seed weevil.

'Banganapally' ('Baneshan', 'chaptai', 'Safeda')–of high quality but shy bearer 'Dusehri' ('Dashehari aman', 'nirali aman', 'kamyab')–high quality

'Gulab Khas' 'Zardalu' 'K.O. 11'

Mid- to Late-Season:

'Rumani' (often bearing an off-season crop)

'Samarbehist' ('Chowsa', 'Chausa', 'Khajri')–high quality 'Vanraj'

'K.O. 7/5' ('Himayuddin' ´ 'Neelum') Late:

'Fazli' ('Fazli malda')–high quality 'Safeda Lucknow'

Often Late:

'Neelum' (sometimes twice a year)–somewhat dwarf, of indifferent quality, and anthracnose-susceptible.

Most of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000 crosses were made over a period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids were raised and screened. Of these, 'Mallika', a cross of 'Neelum' (female parent) with 'Dashehari' (male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972. The hybrid tends toward regular bearing, the fruits are showier and are thicker of flesh than either parent, the flavor is superior and keeping quality better. The season is nearly a month later than 'Dashehari'. Another new hybrid, 'Amrapali', of which 'Dashehari' was the female parent and 'Neelum' the male, is definitely dwarf, precocious, a regular and heavy bearer, and late in the season. The fruit is only medium in size; flesh is rich orange, fiberless, sweet and 2 to 3 times as high in carotene as either parent.

The Central Food Technological Research Institute Experiment Station in Hyderabad has evaluated 9 "table varieties" (firm-fleshed), 4 "juicy" varieties, and 5 hybrids as to

suitability for processing. 'Baneshan', 'Suvarnarekha' and '5/5 Rajapuri' ´ 'Langra' were deemed suitable for slicing and

canning. 'Baneshan', 'Navaneetam',

It is interesting to note that all but four of the leading Indian cultivars are yellow-skinned. The exceptions are: two yellow with a red blush on shoulders, one red-yellow with a blush of red, and one

green. In Thailand, there is a popular mango called 'Tong dum' ('Black Gold') marketed when the skin is very dark-green and usually displayed with the skin at the stem end cut into points and spread outward to show the golden flesh in the manner that red radishes are fashioned into "radish roses" in American culinary art.

European consumers prefer a deep-yellow mango that develops a reddish-pink tinge. In Florida, the color of the mango is an important factor and everyone admires a handsome mango more or less generously overlaid with red. Red skin is considered a necessity in mangos shipped to northern markets, even though the quality may be inferior to that of non-showy cultivars. Also, dependable bearing and shippability are rated above internal qualities for practical reasons. And a shipping mango must be one that can be picked 2 weeks before full maturity without appreciable loss of flavor. Too, there must be several varieties to extend the season over at least 3 months.

Florida mangos are classed in 4 groups:

Fig. 63: 'Black Cold' mangoes, dark-green externally when ripe, are partly peeled like "radish roses" on the Bangkok market to show their yellow, fiberless flesh.

1–Indian varieties, mainly monoembryonic, introduced in the past and maintained mostly in collections; typically of somewhat "turpentine" character.

2–Philippine and Indo-Chinese types, largely polyembryonic, non-turpentiney, fiberless, fairly anthracnose-resistant. Scattered in dooryard plantings.

3–West Indian/South American mangos, especially 'Turpentine' and 'No.11' and the

3–West Indian/South American mangos, especially 'Turpentine' and 'No.11' and the