Aterrizaje en Ezeiza. Descarga desde pista y transporte en camión refrigerado a -

Sampling has been subject to different interpretation: for example Burns and Grove (2005) describe sampling in a few words as ―the process of selecting subjects for research‖ (p. 49). Similarly, Jupp (2006) broadly describes sampling as ―techniques used to select groups from a wider population‖ (p.270). Other definitions are more elaborate and may include an outline of the purpose of sampling: according to Byrne (1999), ―sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g. people, organisations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample, the research may fairly generalize the results back to the population from which they are chosen‖ (p.25). In comparison, the approach by Ploeg (1999) towards defining sampling is more concerned with the issue of the researcher‘s preconception towards choosing the sample that could negatively impact on its representativeness. She perceives sampling within the context of social science as ―the randomization technique to pick respondents from a larger population with the purpose of removing selection and other biases‖ (p. 36). Whilst these definitions have approached sampling from a generic angle, Silverman (1997) suggests that sample selection in qualitative research should not be driven by questions of representativeness. Instead, it should be concerned with questions about the depth of data such as experiences resulting in information richness. As a consequence, the number of research participants may be significantly less in qualitative research compared to quantitative research and may even consist of a single case only (Patton, 1990). Rather than approaching the debate on sampling as an independent point of discussion, Brady (2006) stresses the need to link the debate about the understanding of sampling to the epistemological foundation of the research, which in the case of this thesis is the idea of knowledge being generated through interaction and interpretation between the researcher and the research participants. In view of the research focus of this thesis that is concerned with exploring and understanding the lived experiences of

sport event volunteers, an extensive engagement of the researcher with the data collection and interpretation process that take place simultaneously and involving a smaller rather than a large number of research participants was anticipated.

The literature on sampling offers researchers a number of different sampling techniques that can be divided into two groups: a) probability and representative sampling which includes, for example, random, systematic, cluster and multi-stage sampling and widely used in quantitative research using surveys and using simple and b) non-probability or judgemental sampling (Saunders et al., 2007). The latter encompasses a large number of sampling strategies used in qualitative inquiry including quota sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling and convenience sampling (Hussey and Hussey, 1997; Silverman, 2006; Saunders et al., 2007). Rather than having to choose one specific sampling strategy, researchers may use a combination of sampling strategies in their research (Creswell, 2007; Saunders et al., 2007). Furthermore, Creswell (2007) warns that researchers have to be ready to accept that sampling techniques may change in the process of research requiring the researcher to be flexible and willing to adapt. This has been the case in this study and will be discussed in the following section. Last but not least the question remains about what has to be sampled. Since the focus of this thesis centres on sport event volunteering, the sampling process was not limited to the volunteers as respondents but also encompassed the selection from sporting events that took place between the second half of 2007 and mid-2008 in Great Britain. Thus, the debate about the sampling techniques adopted in this research made use of the conceptualization framework of Marshall and Rossman (2006) that outlines four aspects or levels of sampling: events, setting, actors and artefacts.

In view of the absence of mega- or major sport events in Great Britain during the three- year period in which the thesis was to be written (2006 – 2009), large-scale sport events in the Great Britain were chosen as research settings for a number of pragmatic reasons: due to the unique nature of these events and that the fact they were hosted in different countries or regions and their size, it was anticipated that they were likely to attract a larger mix of sport event volunteers in comparison to small-scale events that take place at a local level. Consequently, it was anticipated that there was a greater chance to obtain a suitable research sample. In view of the formal structure of these events which usually make a public call for and recruit volunteers via their websites, the

volunteers could be established via the event volunteer coordinator. Furthermore, conducting research in Great Britain does not require any translation of the transcripts. This would have been more likely the case if data was to be collected from volunteers helping with sport events that take place abroad.

In view of the sampling process, all large sporting events that took place in Great Britain between mid- 2007 and mid-2008 were sourced through the internet and researched whether they required volunteers or not. From those who called for volunteers, the contact details of the respective event coordinator were established and an enquiry for permission to access the volunteer labour force was made. With regards to the research participant sampling, the research relied on purposive sampling as this allows the researcher access to information rich cases and to accomplish the research aim (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998; Patton, 2001). A relevant criterion for individuals to qualify as potential research participants was the shared characteristic of their past engagement in sport event volunteering at a large scale-event in Great Britain. In the context of this research, different recruitment strategies were employed for the exploratory and the main field research stage. The first strategy involved negotiating access to sport event volunteers through the event volunteer coordinator. Similar to the formal sign-on of helpers for mega-sporting events like the Olympic Games or the FIFA World Cup through the event organisers, volunteers for large and major sporting events are usually recruited through and formally managed by the organising body which is represented by the event volunteer coordinator. Throughout the sample recruitment process within the context of the thesis, this position emerged as a gatekeeper of the event labour pool and represented a vital channel through which to get into contact with sport event volunteers. Negotiation for access through the event volunteer coordinators was challenged further by the Data Protection Act which prohibited the event volunteer coordinator to forward me event volunteers‘ contact details without the volunteers' consent. Consequently, I was dependent on the goodwill of the volunteer coordinator to forward letters and emails informing the volunteers about the research and inviting them to participate. The strategy of accessing sport event volunteers through their coordinator proved to be particularly successful when recruiting a research sample from the 2008 World Under 23 Rowing Championship (Strathclyde) where I was issued with a list of contacts by the respective event coordinator. In contrast, this strategy failed in the context of the 2007 European Hockey Championship (Manchester), the 2007 UCI Mountainbike World Championships (Fort Williams), the 2007 UK Ironman contest

(Sherborne) and the 2008 FINA World Swimming Championship (Manchester) where the event coordinator either did not respond to emails or were unresponsive despite their initial offer to help. This might have been due to the intense work load of volunteer coordinators and increasing time pressure as the event draws near. In order to overcome this recurring gatekeeper issue, direct contact with sport event volunteers at the 2008 Paralympic World Cup in Manchester was sought by distributing letters at the sport event myself which introduced myself and my study and invited volunteers to participate in the research and to get in touch with me to arrange for an interview. Besides the fact that I could only approach event volunteers that were within reach of the event audience but not those working ‗behind the scenes‘, this strategy of distributing research invitations among event volunteers failed in the first instance as I was turned away upon arrival by the event manager in charge as I had no official authorisation from the respective event volunteer coordinator to approach the event volunteers.

In view of these difficulties of recruiting research participants and the time constraints posed by the timeframe of the thesis, the third recruitment strategy involved becoming a sport event volunteer myself in order to gain access to sport event volunteers and to recruit a research sample. Therefore, I applied and was accepted as a volunteer at the World Firefighters Games 2008 (WFG‘08) which is a biannual international multi-sport event that took place in Liverpool from 24th August to 03rd September 2008. Over 2800 competitors participated in the Games that included 70 sports and involved approximately 1000 volunteers. During my engagement as sport event volunteer, I distributed 253 research invitations which generated a response rate of 28 event volunteers of which 18 participated in interviews at the beginning of October 2008.

Transparency appeared as a dominant ethical consideration throughout the sampling process. For example, the question emerged if I should make my reasons for becoming a sport event volunteer at the World Firefighters Games 2008 (WFG‘08) and my intention to use the event as setting for recruiting a sample known to the volunteer coordinator. In view of the requirement of good research practice, I informed the volunteer coordinator about my motives and the overall purpose of my involvement in the event and asked for permission prior to the event to hand out information letters to the event volunteers during and after my daily volunteer work. The Data Protection Act

participants: for example, the list with the email contacts for the volunteers of the WU23 Rowing Championship was provided by the event volunteer with the understanding that the contact details served the purpose of the study only and were not to be shared with third parties. In reference to approaching sport event volunteers at the WFG‘08 in Liverpool, the event volunteer coordinator authorized the handing out of information letters to event volunteers under the condition that volunteers were not be asked for their names and contact details. Instead, they had to refer themselves to me if they wanted to participate in my research.