2. CAUSAS
2.5 LOS CONFLICTOS ENRAIZADOS
2.5.3 EL AUGE DE LOS POPULISMOS
Though some Duhuang manuscripts and banners might be regarded as the remains of the forerunner of the shuilu rite according to some scholars,146 the undoubtedly accepted earliest materials associated with the shuilu have been found in the Sichuan region both in the historical documents and the rock carvings since the late 9th and early 10th century. The historical record about the famous painter Zhang Nanben (active in late 9th to 10th century) in the late Tang Dynasty is quite noticeable. As an expert on painting the Buddhist and Daoist figures as well as depicting the fire, Zhang left his paintings in several great monasteries in Chengdu during the late 9th century, such as Dashengcisi, Shengshousi, Jinhuasi etc.147 For the yard of shuilu rite in Baolisi temple he was alleged to have finished a set of
shuilu hanging scrolls of more than one hundred and twenty.In that set all the deities of the three teachings with other “deities, spirits, dragons and beasts” together were vividly depicted. It is also said that the set by Zhang was copied and thus substituted, and later the authentic one was sold to a man from Jinghu (in nowadays Hunan province).148 If this record is reliable, it shows that the deities of the inner altar of shuilu were already quite
comprehensive even at the end of the Tang time, and come almost near to the famous
Baoningsi set from the early Ming time (1386-1644).149 Besides, the rite was also active out of Sichuan in the late 9th century.150
Another record is related with a monk called Shouzhen (893-971) in the Northern Song, who was ordained in the Shengshousi in Chengdu as a monk of the school of Esoteric Buddhism. One of his great accomplishments was that he was alleged to have held the shuilu rite for more than twenty times during his life.151
146 See footnote 135.
147 Wang Weiming, Dashengcisi, 17, 85, 150-153. The narration about him is reserved in Yizhou minghua lu by
Huang Xiufu (10th -11th century) and Tuhua jianwen zhi by Guo Ruoxu (11th -12th century), whereby the latter
referred the former one for certain contents. See Ibid., 93-96.
148 Huang Xiufu, Yizhou minghualu, 13-14.
149 For the Baoningsi set see Shanxi bowuguan, “Baojingsi.” It is also suggested in recent years that the pictures
of shuilu in Baoningsi were finished as early as in the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1386). See Li Deren, “Shanxi youyu baoningsi,” 61-64.
150 Also several sets of shuilu picture from Ming Dyansty reserved in the province of Gansu draw the attention of
scholars. See Xie Shengbao, “Gansu hexi shuiluhua,” 8-11.
151 The rites were not all proceeded in Chengdu since he died in the Kaibaosi in Kaifeng. See T50, no. 2061, 871,
The above two entries in the historical documents show that the shuilu took already a noticeable place in the temples of Chengdu as early as the late 9th and 10th century. Famous painters and influential monks engaged themselves actively in the rites and their activities were highly evaluated by the contemporary people. Also the shuilu rite was spread from Sichuan region to the eastern provinces and became one of the principal conducts in Buddhist monasteries.
With the consideration that the Buddhism in Sichuan region was significantly under the influence from the north, especially from the capital Chang’an, it is reasonable to assume that the rite might have come from Chang’an. Since there is no document delivered about the origination of shuilu in Sichuan,152 Also the cultural importing together with the flights of the two emperors Xuanzong (re. 712-756) in 756 and Xizong (re. 873-888) in 880 into Sichuan is noteworthy.153 In Sichuan the rite was further developed through combination with the local Daoism, in which certain rites took an important place. In the monastries of Chengdu in the Song time there must have been much more relating works,154 but they are not extant unforturnately and only the remains reserved in the remote place of the region, especially those together with the rock carvings, are delivered to today.
The most well know story about shuilu, which is mentioned almost in every narrative about the origin of the rite, is related with the great writer Su Shi (1037-1101). In 1093 he invited a famous monk Shanben (11th -12th century) to hold a rite of shuilu for his late wife Wang to save her spirit from falling into the hell. He wrote hence a set of sixteen poems to praise the corresponding icons hung in the inner altar. In the foreword he commented that the rite had been expanding and the original (and better) approach was reserved in the Sichuan.155 Since Su Shi originated from Meishan in Sichuan, the rite related with him was then named as Meishan shuilu. The sixteen stations of the inner altar in the shuilu praised by Su Shi are as following:
152 After the legend the revival of the rite is attributed to a Chan master Ying in Chang’an during the Xianheng
era (670-673) of Tang Dynasty. See among others T49, no. 2035, 321.
153 Wang Weiming, Dashengcisi, 6, 8.
154 For instance in the greatest monastry of Chengdu, Dashengcisi there was a shuilu yuan, “Yard for Shuilu”,
according to the record by Fan Chengda (1126-1193). See Wang Weiming, Dashengcisi, 253.
Upper hall Lower hall
Buddhas Officials and attendants
Dharma Heavenly beings
Sangha Asuras
Great bodhisattvas Human beings Great pratyekabuddhas Denizents of hells
Great arhats Hungry ghosts
Gods and Immortal with Five Supernatural Powers156
Animals
Dharmapalas and divine dragons Beings outside the Six Paths Table 2.3 Sixteen stations in the inner altar of Meishan shuilu
Although the shuilu sponsored by Su Shi in 1093 was not carried out in Meishan or Sichuan and the responsible monk did not come from Sichuan, its relation to Sichuan should still be taken into consideration. 157 A Buddhist layer Yang E (11th -12th century) collected and compiled the ritual texts of shuilu into three volumes according to the old tradition, which was prevalent in the Sichuan region in the Song time.158 Since the structure and deities in the inner altar described in the text of Yang E are the same as as those in the “Meishan
shuilu”, the text of Yang E could have been the “old approach” refered by Su Shi. Probably the rite by Yang E was then quite influential and the shuilu sponsored by Su Shi was carried out according to the ritual text by Yang E, even if the rite was not held in Sichuan at the time.
The excerpts of four delievered texts by Yang E bring an outline of a ritual text. 159 The first text is like the beginning of the ritual that one should set up his four great minds, the mind of Bodhi, Broadness, Great Wish and Great Merciness in order to make the preparation for “cultivating the practice of bodhisattva”.160 The next two texts are the core parts, in which
156 The group of gods and immortals are noticeable. Refering the detailed explanation of them in the text of Yang
E, it is consipicious that they are Daoist deities. X., vol. 101, 447. Together with the (confucian) officials of the lower hall the three teachings are all available in the “Meishan shuilu”.
157 The name “Meishan Shuilu” brings the impression, as if the rite was proceeded in or originated from Sichuan.
However, the chronicle of Su Shi shows that he could not be in Sichuan in 1093. His wife died in August in Kaifeng and he assumed the governorship of Dingzhou in Hebei since September until the spring in 1094. The rite was carried out in November, and then Su Shi must have been in Dingzhou or Kaifeng. See Kong Fanli, Su
Shi nianpu, ch. 32. The monk Shanben (1035-1109) who was the director of the rite, did not come from Sichuan,
but from Yingzhou in the province Anhui. See X., vol., 137, 555. They knew each other since Su was governor in Hangzhou. At the time when Su’s wife died he was the leading monk of Fayunsi in Kaifeng. See Grant, Mount
Lu Revisitied 140, 144-149. The interpretation of Grant, that Su had seen how the shuilu was carried out when he
was growing up in Meishan, cannot be proved, and Shanben did not originate from Sichuan as she presumed.
158 According to Zongze (11th -12th century) the ritual text compiled by Yang E during 1068-1077 was
prevailing in Sichuan and the most traditional one. See X., vol. 101, 443.
159 Chu ru daochang xu jian shuilu yi, Xuanbai zhaoqing shangtang bawei shengzhong and Xuanbai zhaoqing
xiatang bawei shengfan, Shuiluzhai yiwen houxu. X., vol. 101, 445-450.
the deities and spirits of the upper and lower halls in the inner altar were invited and surmmoned. but since it is incomplete, it is not clear what would proceed after they were assembled. Noticeably the figures of the inner altar are as same as those in “Meishan shuilu” of Su Shi.161 The last one, an afterword, is quite short, but it stresses again the shuilu as “the approach of salvation”, “to see no one on the earth not to accomplish the Buddhahood”.162 The four texts are quite incompleted and seem to be excerpted from Yang E’s three volumns of shuilu ritual texts. Nevertheles, the purpose, core part, and roughly structure of the rite as well as the brief style of text are still tangible.
The three volumes of Yang E have not been delivered. However, the discovery in Yunnan in recent years brings new light to the subject, especially to the old approach of Yang E in the Song time. Several prints from Song and Yuan time reserved in Yunnan reveal an overview and some details of the rite to us.163 It is called Chongguang shuilu fashi wuzhe dazhai, the “re- expanded great non-restriction rite of the Buddhist service shuilu”, from which the outline, the preface of teaching, inviting the holy monks, and the 5th and 6th parts are included.164 Though it is claimed that the texts come from the Emperor Wu of Liang Dynasty and Yang E, it is more likely the compilation of Zujue (1087-1150), since the texts are much lavisher and thus quite different from those of Yang E. Nevertheless, the expanded texts still reflect the rite in Sichuan region in the Song time.165
Based on the outline and other three parts the programme and certain details of the rite are still comprehensible regardless of incompleteness of the texts. The whole rite consists of 144 sections, which can be grouped into two parts: “preaching before the altar” and “rites of the six times”. The first part has ten sections, which tell about the rules of the sanctary, the mysterious stories, etc, and is more likely a spiritual preparation for the rite and for the mass. Then it begins with the rites of six times. In the key part the each eight figures of upper and lower halls of the inner altar are invited and surmmoned, in which the structure
161 There is slight discrepancy in the arrangement and name of the Path of Animals. 162 X., vol. 101, 450.
163 Hou Chong mentioned many manuscripts or prints of the Song time relating with shuilu or other rites
reserved in Yunnan, but those are mostly unpublished and unaccessible. I express my gratitude to him for his generous sharing of some of his charitable collections of histotic materials. See Hou Chong, “Lun dazu baoding,” 193-194, and “Songdai de xinyangxing fojiao,” 197-212. Concerning the Buddhism practised by the common people in the Song time also refer to Li Silong, “Minsu fojiao,” 55-60. Also Dai Xiaoyun, “Bei shuilu fahui,”48-57。
164 About the discovery and maintenance of the prints see Hou Chong, “Lun Dazu,” 202-203. 165 See the analysis by Hou Chong, Ibid, 192-213.
is still the same as by Su Shi and Yang E.166 The procedure, compared with the above described 13 parts, is twice simpler, but the whole structures are still similar in general. The long and lavish texts together with numerous Buddha names and dharani, etc., in the style of plain text, gata, poem and verse, would have been read aloud through the whole rite. In the texts the Buddhis philosophy and ethics was mixtured with mysterious wonder
words, and it must have been a good chance to preach Mahayana Buddhis as the Buddhist spectacular was observed by the crowd of common people. Here the ritual texts had the similar status like sutras for the donor, since the donor paid the costs of copying the rite text and would like to leave his name on the prints for the sake of his merits.
Through the delivered ritual texts, it is clear that the rite is quite comprehensive compared to that of Su Shi and Yang E. Though the text might not necessarily coincide with the rite, a roughly outline about the rite in the Sichuan region in the Song time can still be obtained. And it is also clear that the salvation, preaching and accumulating merits are the main purpose of the rite.
Shuilu in rock carvings of the Sichuan region
The rock carvings, scattered in Sichuan region, are situated either in the near of the once temples or in the important historical traffic lines. Though no traces of shuilu has ever been found in the rock carvings near Chengdu due to the weathering, the extant remains in stone are seemingly spread geographically from the metropole to the east, to the inner part of Sichuan region, such as Anyue, Dazu and Laitan etc., among which Dazu has the richest of materials.167 The following is an overview of the sites related with the shuilu in a
chronological order.
The earliest known site is in Anyue, Antangsi no. 7. Together with Amitābha, Maitreya and Kṣitigarbha in the weathered inscription the word shuilu is found.168 However, the
inscription is quite weathered so that it cannot be affirmed whether the word “shuilu” in it refers definitely to the rite or not.
166 Again with slight discrepancies in the arrangement and name of the Path of Animal.
167 Relating the periodization of the sculptures concerning shuilu in Dazu refer to Li Xiaoqiang, “Dazu shike
zhali,” 335-340.
The niche no. 253 in Dazu Beishan with Guanyin and Kṣitigarbha with the ten kings of hell, is definitely associated with shuilu according to an inscription of repainting outside the niche. “…… sincerely completed to express the celebration after performing the rite shuilu on 8th day of the 2nd month of 1001.”169 Guanyin and Kṣitigarbha with the ten kings of hell are the essential deities in the rite, but it is hard to clarify the relation between the images and the rite.170 It is unlikely that a sanctary of shuilu in small scale had been set up before the niche was presumed,171 but rather the rite was probably performed in the temple nearby and the donors had repainted the niche to celebrate the rite after it had been held.
In 1986 in the ruins of Dazhongsi temple, about 30 kilometers east from the Dazu county town, more than fifty sculptures and icons were excavacated. Many inscriptions on the icons, most of which are statues of Arhats, or Luohan in Chinese, refer to Buddhist rites, zhai and the No. 20 refers unquestionably to “performing the shuilu zhai” in the year 1056.172
Luohan or holy monks, as shown above, played a key role in the rite.
In Shizhuanshan, 15 kilometer south of the Dazu town, a group of middle-sized niches from the Northern Song time are fairly well reserved. The niche No. 6 and 7 possess inscriptions of the performing of the rite shuilu on 7th day of 10th month in 1088. Several hundred meters away is the ruin of temple Fohuisi. Since all the niches are from the pantheon of the shuilu, it is arguable what a role the group of niches might have played in the rite. The inscription of the donor and the new discoveries of three niches are an ideal example for the research. The images and function of the group will be discussed in detail in the paper.
About 12 kilometers away from Shizhuanshan there is another small hill named
Miaogaoshan173, where a large Buddhist temple and the rock carvings from Song time are located. There are four big caves and one huge standing Buddha in high relief with three small niches here. The Huayan triad with sixteen Luohans is located in the cave no. 3, the so called “Cave of Luohan”. On the halo of one Luohan a laudation text written by Su Shi in 1093 for his late wife was carved. Further in the cave of Water-moon Guanyin an inscription by a contemporenous visitor refered the place as “jiao tan”, (Daoist) santuray of rite.174 The
169 Chongqing, Dazu shike mingwenlu, 72-73. 170 Stevensen, Daniel, “Text, Image,” 64, endnote 43. 171 Xie Shengbao and Xie Jing, “Shuilu daochang,” 31. 172 Deng Zhijing, “Dazuxian dazhongsi,” 108.
173 The name Miaogaoshan appears in certain diagrams of the shuilu rite text. See Yirun et al., Shuilu yigui, 424. 174 Normally jiao refers to Daoist rite, but there are examples in which shuilu are also called as “jiao”. See Li
inscriptions and the iconography of the sculpted statues there show that the images are also likely related with the rite shuilu.175
About 28 kilometers north from Dazu town on top of a small hill is the ruin of temple Shibisi with the hall of “three teachings”, where the icons of the three teachers with Jade Emperor and the scences of hell etc. were chiselled on a huge rock. In situ a stele from 1210 is
delivered, and it shows that the carved text seems to be a dedication text in shuilu performed by the local people. The text is unique and records many details of the shuilu held there, such as the purpose or names of beneficiaries as well as the cited dharanis etc. It is earliest known shuilu text carved on stone and helpful for the study of shuilu in the region in Song time. Noticeably the text shows a strong influence from Daoist texts of rite and further discloses the relation between Daoist elements and shuilu in the Song time. As for the great complex of Dafowan in Baodingshan one breakthrough of research since recent years is the argument about the close relation of the complex with the Buddhist rites, especially with the shuilu rite. The historical documents reserved in Yunnan demonstrate arguably the connection between the monumental images with the shuilu rite. Though it is still disputable if the site was the sancturary or not, it is no doubt that certain number of the statues were produced according to the iconography and rite text of shuilu. 176
Outside the Dazu County there are still some traces of shuilu to be found. In Yuanjuedong No. 12 in Anyue County a stele was carved as the inscription for a huge Guanyin with lotus sprout. The stele tells that the shuilu rite was performed and the Four Great Sutras were preached after the project of building Guanyin statue was finished in 1107.177 The shuilu