ANIMALES PARA AUTOCONSUMO, VENTA Y TRABAJO
5.3.1.4 Aumento de la base de recursos propios
This chapter outlines the theoretical basis that guides the conceptualization of this study,
the PYD approach to research, and how attributes and resources in adolescence combine to foster
positive development and healthy outcomes, including healthy sex and relationships, throughout
the life course. The theoretical framework includes multilevel (developmental systems and life
course theory), interpersonal (social cognitive theory and attachment theory), and intrapersonal (identity formation theory) related theories.
Multilevel: Developmental Systems and Life Course Theory
A healthy transition to adulthood does not merely entail the avoidance of drugs, violence,
and unsafe sexual activity, nor is individual behavior the sole contributor to healthy
development. Indeed, current literature provides evidence for health-promoting and skill-
building opportunities at multiple societal levels as equally (or more) vital to cognitive,
emotional, behavioral, and social functioning throughout the life course.85 Stemming from
developmental systems theory, PYD approaches to research and programming incorporate a
bidirectional, “person-in-context” perspective,73,76,95,116 recognizing that the social influences of
parents, peers, partners, and neighbors are as important to child development as individual
behaviors. The reciprocal nature of these influences indicates that an adolescent can be shaped
by his or her environment, but he or she can also act in ways that alter their environment.76
According to developmental systems theory, no single factor solely affects health and
development, but rather human development is impacted by diverse factors at multiple
interacting levels.116 The PYD perspective identifies interrelated adolescent assets—not
supportive contextual resources that can be strengthened to promote healthy behaviors and
positive outcomes.
Life-course theory also provides a general organizing framework for this dissertation.
According to life-course theory, human development (and related health outcomes) is
conceptualized as a trajectory influenced by interactions between genetics and individual
behavior, and also by social and historical contexts and cumulative conditions during the
transitions throughout life.117 Adolescence represents one important transition in the life course,
the transition from childhood to emerging adulthood, and is largely impacted by circumstances
and conditions in early life, while at the same time being a significant contributor to well-being in later life. Adolescence is a life stage marked by the onset of puberty and consisting of many
transformations, not only in education and community connections, but in relationships with
family, peers, and romantic partners. In this transition, adolescents must navigate complex social,
emotional, and psychological changes.73 According to life course theory, how a person develops
throughout life is largely influenced by the timingand sequencing of these important transitions
in adolescence.118 Within a particular historical and cultural context, if the transitions occur off-
time or out of normative sequence, then social or other health consequences might ensue that are different from those who experience an event in what is considered “normal” timing and order.
For example, young girls who begin puberty early, often begin romantic and sexual experiences
earlier than their on-time maturing peers,119,120 which may put them at greater risk for immediate
and long-term adverse sexual health outcomes.120,121 Often times , however, the environment—
both the availability and quality of resources/opportunities and the strengths of social
relationships, especially, impact how adolescents might cope with these many transitions in
The importance of social relationships is a central component of linked lives, which is
another proposition of life course theory. Linked lives emphasizes that the prominent social bonds in a person’s life (with parents, siblings, peers, or romantic partners) have a collective
influence on their behavior and health trajectories, while also the interdependent nature of social
networks enables individuals to influence the trajectories of those in their social circles.118 This
concept helps explain why new roles and experiences during the many transitions in adolescence
not only impact the individual, but also those within their networks. People live within social
settings; thus, it is important to consider diverse social, cultural, and historical contexts and how
those experiences and resources combine to contribute to health and development over time. Lastly, individuals make decisions and act within societal and historical constraints,
however these decisions enable them to form and impact their own life course trajectories.118 In
other words, individuals exercise agency, another life course perspective principle, which also
has an influence on their health and well-being throughout life. Because of agency and the
understanding that human development is a life-long process, youth “select into personal
experiences, interpersonal relationships, and social settings in ways that reflect their past and
contribute to their futures”; therefore youth play a key role in their own development.122, p.274
PYD experiences enhance capabilities for youth to capitalize on existing sociocontextual
resources in households, schools, and communities 76 that help them manage physical and social
changes and strengthen positive qualities, like agency or decision-making, that foster healthy
development throughout the life course.
Interpersonal: Social Cognitive Theory and Attachment Theory
Developmental systems and life course theories provide a paradigmatic framework for
how earlier positive experiences and contexts can affect later behavior and health outcomes. Elements of social cognitive theory, attachment theory, and identity formation theory further
elucidate key factors and directional hypotheses for these mechanisms. One fundamental
property of the PYD perspective is that adolescents need strong connections to prosocial peers and adults to foster healthy development. Social cognitive theory asserts that important social
units—family, friends, teachers, and community institutions—influence positive adolescent
behaviors and competencies by modeling socially desired behaviors, expectations, and beliefs,
and by providing rewards or consequences for (or expressing favorable/unfavorable attitudes
toward) desired behaviors.123 Individuals learn new skills from observing others’ modeled
behaviors, even without them having to explicitly practice those observed skills, in a process of
“observational learning.”123, p.6 The more social interactions youth have with prosocial adults and
peers, the more opportunities they have to develop positive social skills and connections (e.g.,
listening, communication, empathy). Desired behaviors are reinforced as adolescents receive
positive and/or negative feedback from parents, peers, or the outer community; adolescents
internalize these social cues and subsequently make adjustments to their behaviors.124 A PYD
approach to research and programming recognizes that adolescent prosocial bonding can lead to
prosocial behaviors (e.g., caring, volunteering, or spirituality), therefore families and
communities have the potential to be vital sources of support for healthy development.76
Parents and guardians, specifically, often play prominent roles in healthy adolescent
development, especially in regard to fostering positive social skills and healthy relationships.
According to attachment theory,125 adolescents construct working models of relationships, and
their self within a relationship, based on their relationship with their parents.126 Adolescents draw
on these working models in their future interactions with romantic partners,126 often emulating
parents’ behaviors and their affective patterns of expression.111 High-quality parent-child
relationships characterized by warmth, love, and open communication then allow youth to practice important relationship competencies and form values or expectations for themselves and
their future relationships. In other words, high-quality parent-child relationships help strengthen
interpersonal skills, but also an individual’s self-identity and functioning within a relationship, which allows one to interact effectively with others, express personal desires, and cope with
differences.
Intrapersonal: Identity Formation Theory
Individuals might be better-skilled at these social competences, and potentially
experience healthier relationships throughout life, if they have a positive self-identity, where they
believe in their self-worth and exercise a sense of purpose and control. Strong attachment in families, in fact, can enhance the identity formation process as young people often adopt the
beliefs and values that align with close individuals in social contexts, especially
parents/caregivers. According to Erikson’s identity formation theory (1968), adolescence is a
life stage when individuals often for the first time try to make sense of who they are and their
hopes for the future, including goals for their sexual and romantic relationships.127 Therefore,
when young people take on new roles and interactions, having strong guiding principles and a
solid foundation allows space to build a positive “sense of inner identity” and “ability” that reflects their beliefs, aspirations, and context.127, p.87 A positive identity helps facilitate a strong
sense of self-worth, confidence, and autonomy through “intentional self-regulation:” a cognitive
process whereby one purposefully reflects on their hopes, behaviors, and desires, which allows
them to select life goals and leverage their skills and resources to achieve these goals.128,129
Assets such as positive identity and self-regulation are fundamental to sexual health development
because individuals who are equipped with these psychosocial competencies might be better-
positioned to take advantage of existing opportunities to achieve their personal goals for
some individuals might limit their engagement in risky sexual behaviors that may jeopardize
their goals.128
Identity crises can emerge during the identity development process 130 when
contradictions between individual beliefs and the expectations of others (or their own
aspirations) result in uncertainty or shame 131 and adolescents have limited ability to cope with
these and other various stressors.132 This is when key influences at the interpersonal level
significantly matter. High-quality social bonds to family or prosocial organizations (e.g., school
clubs or churches), as those promoted by PYD efforts, foster a supportive environment for youth
to engage in “self-discovery” and enhance their positive values and capabilities, including successful coping skills that help buffer against identity-related stress.130, p.254 Adolescents with
limited positive attachment to family or other prosocial adults and peers, on the other hand,
might have fewer resources to utilize if a conflict occurs during the identity formation process,
which could undermine positive identity development and have adverse implications for many
related functions of human life, including managing sexual health and relationships.
In the context of sexual health, the mechanisms described by social cognitive and
attachment theory, identity formation theory, and intentional self-regulation help explain how early contexts either promote or undermine development and the ability of individuals to
function positively within relationships, feel empowered to express personal desires, and achieve
positive sexual health outcomes. In summary, strong parent, peer, or community attachment
contexts act as spaces for crucial skill-building and identity-forming opportunities for
adolescents. Therefore, it is important to examine if and how diverse experiences and contexts in
adolescence (a sensitive time period with various biological and psychosocial transitions) might
be relevant for future sexual health, to build a collective understanding about what factors are critical for lasting, holistic well-being.
CHAPTER 3: POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT AMONG A POPULATION-BASED