Vent.; Racosperma fl oribundum (Vent.) Pedley) - gossamer wattle,
white sallow wattle, sally wattle
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. – hivar, rijua, arjiya, reon, babula- bhed
Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. ssp. longifolia (A. longifolia var. latifolia Sweet; Mimosa longifolia Andrews) – sallow wattle, Sydney golden wattle, long-leafed acacia
Acacia longifolia ssp. sophorae (Labill.) Court (A. longifolia var. sophorae (Labill.) Benth.; A. longifolia fo. sophorae (Labill.)
Siebert et Voss; A. sophorae (Labill.) R. Br.; Mimosa sophorae Labill.; Racosperma sophorae (Labill.) Martius) – coast wattle
Acacia longissima Hort. ex H.L. Wendl. (A. linearis Sims, non. Desv.
ex Ham.; A. linearis var. longissima (Hort. ex H.L. Wendl.) DC.;
Racosperma longissimum (Hort. ex H.L. Wendl.) Pedley) – narrow- leaf wattle
Acacia maidenii F. Muell. (Racosperma maidenii (F. Muell.) Pedley) – Maiden’s wattle
Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth.
Acacia mucronata Willd. ex H.L. Wendl. (A. longifolia var. mucronata
(Willd. ex H.L. Wendl.) Benth.) – narrow-leaf wattle, variable sallow
wattle
Acacia neurophylla W. Fitzg.
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile (A. adansonii Guill. et Perr.; A. arabica (Lam.) Willd.; A. scorpioides Wight; A. vera Willd.) – scorpion mimosa, Egyptian thorn, sunt, kaarad, gaudi, babul, Indian gum-arabic tree, ol giloriti, ol kiloriti
Acacia nilotica ssp. subalata (Vatke) Brenan – ol giloriti, ol kiloriti Acacia nubica Benth. (A. orfota Schweinf.; A. pterygocarpa Hochst. ex
Benth.) – pelil, wanga, oldepe, gomur
Acacia obtusifolia A. Cunn. (A. intertexta Sieber ex DC.; A. longifolia fo. elongata Benth.; A. longifolia fo. latifolia Benth.; A. longifolia var. obtusifolia (A. Cunn.) Benth. ex Seem.; Racosperma obtusifolium (A. Cunn.) Pedley) – stiff-leaf wattle, blunt-leaf wattle Acacia orites Pedley (Racosperma orites (Pedley) Pedley) – mountain
wattle
Acacia phlebophylla H.B. Will. (A. longifolia var. phlebophylla F.
Muell. ex Benth.; A. sophorae var. montana F. Muell.) – Buffalo
sallow wattle
Acacia piauhiensis Benth. – jurema branca, calumbi branco
Acacia polyacantha Willd. ssp. camplyacantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.)
Bren. (A. caffra (Thunb.) var. camplyacantha (Hochst ex A. Rich.) Aubrev; A. camplyacantha Hochst ex A. Rich.; A. catechu Oliv. non Willd.) – fárcèn karnata [‘falcon’s claw’], kamboorin shááhòò [‘hawk’s
claw’]
Acacia pycnantha Benth. (A. falcinella Meisn., non I.F. Tausch; A. petiolaris Lehm.; A. westonii Maiden) – golden wattle, broad-leaved wattle
Acacia retinodes Schltdl. – swamp wattle, silver wattle, ever-blooming wattle, wirilda
Acacia rigidula Benth. – blackbrush
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. (A. dudgeoni Craib ex Holl.; A. verek Guill.
et Perr.; Mimosa senegal L.) – Egyptian thorn, gum arabic tree,
Sudan gum arabic, Somali gum, arabic cape gum, baval, goradia, kher, kumta, mgwara, ol gitende, ol kerdidi, ol derkesi, ol terikesi
Acacia seyal Del. – white-galled Acacia, white whistling thorn, buffalo thorn, thirsty thorn, suakim gum arabic, ol jorai, ol jerai, sadra bed, bulbi, ndom, erehi
Acacia seyal Del. var. fi stula (Schweinf.) Oliv. – ol jorai, ol jerai Acacia simplicifolia (L. f.) Druce et MacBride (A. simplex (Sparrman)
Pedley) – tatagia
Acacia victoriae Benth. (A. coronalis J.M. Black; A. decora var. spinescens Benth.; A. hanniana Domin.; A. sentis F. Muell.; Racosperma victoriae (Benth.) Pedley) – elegant acacia, elegant wattle, bramble acacia, bramble wattle, prickly wattle, arlep, tuperle, urlepe, pulkuru, narran, ngatunpa, aliti, kanaparlku, yalupu, yarlirti, gundabluie
Acacia spp. – wattles [many of the African Acacia spp. have a huge array of colloquial names, and only a small selection is listed here] Note: although the ‘leaves’ of non-bipinnate Acacia spp. are tech- nically referred to as phyllodes, for overall simplicity they will be called leaves below, as they look like leaves and serve the same functions. The species with phyllodes, rather than pinnules [Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae], have been reclassifi ed into a separate ge-
T H E P L A N T S A N D A N I M A L S T H E G A R D E N O F E D E N
nus, Racosperma. Some of these (from Butcher et al. 2001 and Pedley 1987) are listed above. However, the proposal doesn’t seem to have taken hold with the majority of wattle-lovers and other botanists, who continue to refer to them all as Acacia.
The wattles are a large group of trees and shrubs found mostly in Australia and Africa, where they fl ourish due to their tolerance of dry conditions and ability to restore fertility to the soil. Many African wattles, with their high, fl at canopies are a familiar sight on the savannahs, and are much loved by elephants and giraffes as food.
The wattle with the most extensive cultural history is A. senegal – its wood was used in building the Jewish tabernacle [possibly A. seyal in- stead] (Duke 1983), and its branch in fl ower was used to symbolise the sacred word of the Hebrews. A sprig placed in the turban is said to ward off evil, and the wood is burned in sacred fi res in India. The tree has been associated with several deities – Ishtar [goddess of love and war], Diana [or Artemis – goddess of fertility, nature and the moon], Ra [sun god and guide of the worlds], and Osiris [god of fertility and resurrection] (Cunningham 1994; Jordan 1992). In Nigeria and Senegal, a mistletoe [see Endnotes] growing parasitically on A. senegal is infused and taken as a body-wash or in other ways, to give “quick, clear vision” as a magical hunting aid (Burkill 1985-1997). It is well known that mistletoes often ab- sorb the phytochemicals of the host plant [see also Duboisia]. The resin from the tree, known as ‘Gum Arabic’ [a.k.a. ‘white sennar gum’, ‘kordo- fan gum’], is used in sweets, inks, fabric printing, to add shine to silk, and as a thickener for artist’s paints. It has been used to treat burns, infl am- mations, dysentery, gonorrhea and other complaints, also acting as a de- mulcent and emulsifi er. It was once also extracted from A. nilotica [as A. arabica], and similar gums have been extracted from A. laeta and A. sey- al [‘suakim gum arabic’]. A. catechu is the source of ‘catechu’ or ‘cutch’ [see also Uncaria], a disinfectant and antiinfl ammatory gum sometimes chewed with betel nuts [see Areca, Methods of Ingestion] (Bremness 1994; Gowda 1951; Morton 1977), and used medicinally for its astringent prop- erties. It is extracted from the inner bark by water decoction, which is then concentrated, and poured into moulds to dry (Felter & Lloyd 1898).
A. tortilis was said by the Bedouins to be the original ‘tree of knowl- edge’ (Shulgin & Shulgin 1997). A. polyacantha ssp. camplyacantha is re- garded as an aphrodisiac in the Belgian Congo. In Senegal the root bark is macerated in water for a day and drunk to combat fatigue, lumbago and rib-pains. Also in Senegal, the powdered root of A. seyal is taken with the dried ventral portion of a fat hedgehog as an aphrodisiac; the gum and bark are also believed to be aphrodisiac (Burkill 1985-1997; Duke 1983; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
In Africa, A. ataxacantha root is macerated in water with Securidaca longepedunculata and Capparis tomentosa, and taken to treat hernia, sores and wounds. The leaf is analgesic, and contains an alkaloid. A. ni- lotica has been used in Sudan for many medical ailments, such as colds, bronchitis, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, dysentery and syphilitic lesions. The fruit has antibacterial actions. Also, the Masai take a decoction of the stem bark and root to acquire courage – it acts as a nerve stimulant, aphrodisiac and ‘intoxicant’. The Masai make such use of a variety of plants [see also
Endnotes] to make them aggressive and strong, characters for which Masai
warriors are renowned. These same plants may also be used as stimulants for dancing. The plants may be taken in a number of ways, but one meth- od regularly observed has been the consumption of a water infusion of barks and roots, along with meat that had been cooked with an extract of the same or similar plants. Milk is not to be consumed on the same day, as dysentery may apparently result. Depending on the need [a more demanding battle or raid requiring greater preparation], such stimulant- feasts may continue for up to a month or more. Acacia spp. included have been A. abyssinica [roots], A. nilotica, A. nilotica ssp. subalata, A. senegal, A. seyal [bark], and A. seyal var. fi stula. One researcher [S.L. Hinde] re- ported in 1901 that “when the warriors are preparing to go on the war- path, or even in their war-dances, many of them chew the bark of the mi- mosa tree [probably an Acacia sp. – Ed.], the properties of which are sup- posed to endow the partaker with strength and courage. Some of the men become raving mad from the effects of the bark, and others fall into a comatose condition”. Used under similar circumstances these Acacia spp. have also been said [by D. Storrs-Fox] to “produce a fi erce and unbal- anced state of mind” (Burkill 1985-1997; El Nabi et al. 1992; Lehmann & Mihalyi 1982). Bark decoctions of A. nilotica ssp. subalata have been reported to have intoxicating and aphrodisiac effects, and the root is used to treat impotence. In Tanganyika, A. mellifera has also been reportedly cooked with meat and eaten as a stimulant. A. mellifera var. detinens is be- lieved to affect the weather, by the Tlhaping, who say that it attracts light- ning, and that cutting one of the trees down after the fi rst rains have fall- en will result in bad weather. The hooked thorns of the stems are believed to “have the power of enticing and detaining the ‘weather spirit’” (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Some Australian aboriginal tribes use selected Acacia spp. [such as A. aneura, A. beauverdiana, A. calcicola, A. coriacea, A. estrophiliata, A. hakeoides, A. homalophylla, A. kempeana, A. ligulata, A. pruinocarpa, A. salicina and A. saligna] to produce a fi ne, alkaline ash for chewing with to-
bacco [see Nicotiana] or pituri/pitcheri [see Duboisia], to aid in alkaloid release. The part used is usually either the leaf, bark or twigs, varying from species to species. In the Lake Eyre district, A. salicina used for ash pro- duction is often itself called ‘pitcheri’. Here, the young branch tips [up to 23cm long] were cleaned of damaged and diseased growth. To make the ash, the tips “were tied in bundles, ignited over the fi re and then allowed to burn out while held over a wooden bowl” (Aiston 1937; Bindon 1996; Johnston & Cleland 1933; Latz 1995; Low 1990; Peterson 1979).
A. aneura wood is sometimes made into spear-heads; it is said to con- tain toxic compounds, and thus causes dangerous wounds. The roasted, ground seeds are an important and nutritious food. Mature seeds of A. murrayana were roasted and used as a coffee substitute [see Coffea] by early European settlers. Bark of A. falcata, as well as bark and leaves of A. penninervis, have been used to stun fi sh, as have the bark and twigs of A. melanoxylon [in the Lismore region of NSW]. The latter species has been suspected of poisoning stock, and the wood is thought to cause dermati- tis. In the Fitzroy River region of Queensland, A. salicina bark is used as a fi sh poison. Branches of A. holosericea have also been so used. A. pulchel- la and A. vernicifl ua have also been used as fi sh poisons, but the parts used were not reported (Hurst 1942; Latz 1995; Low 1990).
The boiled young leaves, shoots and seeds of many wattles are edible [wattle seed is often made into a nutritious bread], and the roots can be tapped for water; they are also used to treat a variety of ailments (Bindon 1996; Latz 1995; Maslin et al. 1998). Root shavings of A. georginae have been used as a tea substitute [see Camellia] (Latz 1995). In n. Australia, the Ngarinyman heat leaves and branches of A. lysiphloia on hot coals, and apply them to sore muscles or joints as an analgesic (Smith et al. 1993). An infusion of the leaves and pods of A. auriculiformis is used as an analgesic wash, to relieve body pains (Low 1990). In Groote Eylandt, a species which is probably A. pellita is used for the same purpose. Its heat- ed leaves are also applied to the forehead for headaches. Excited and un- controllable children are sometimes held head-down in smoke from the burning young leaves, to quieten them (Bindon 1996; Levitt 1981).
Aboriginal use of wattles in sacred contexts is common in many parts of Australia. A. peuce is often featured in mythology from central Australian indigenous groups. A. dorotoxylon [A. ammobia] is an important plant in the mythology of the Pitjantjatjara, who use its seed as food. The leaves of A. aneura, another food-provider, have been used as a mat on which sa- cred objects are placed. In central Australia, secret male rituals are con- ducted to ensure the proliferation of A. murrayana seed, which is an im- portant food. A. ligulata is of ritual and spiritual importance to Warlpiri women, and the leaves are used in smoking ceremonies to treat a wide va- riety of illnesses. In northern Australia, crushed leaves of A. estrophiliata are smouldered in smoking ceremonies, to drive away evil spirits. A. dic- tyophleba, A. pruinocarpa and A. lysiphloia leaves are used as ‘smoking medicines’ in northern Australia, for newborn babies and their mothers. A. ligulata is also used for ‘smoking medicine’ (Aboriginal Communities 1988; Bindon 1996; Hurst 1942; Latz 1995; Low 1990).
A. cornigera is sometimes used in the preparation of ‘balché’ [see Lonchocarpus, Methods of Ingestion] by traditional Mayans, and the Maya of San Antonio, Belize, drink a tea of the root as an aphrodisi- ac. A. angustissima and A. albicans roots were probably once added to Aztec ‘pulqué’ brews [alcoholic beverages prepared from Agave spp. – see
Methods of Ingestion], presumably to enhance the effects. In Brazil, A. ba-
hiensis, A. farnesiana and A. piauhiensis are known as ‘jurema branca’ [see Mimosa, Pithecellobium], though it is unknown whether they are actually used ritually as the name would suggest (Ott 1995b, 1997/1998, pers. comm.; Queiroz 2000; Rätsch 1998).
In India, the gum of A. nilotica is fried in ghee [clarifi ed butter] and taken as an aphrodisiac (Nadkarni 1976). The seeds have also been fer- mented with dates to make a beverage (Usher 1974). The tree is consid- ered sacred and holy in India, and is thought to be the home of the spirit of a Mohammedan saint. No one is allowed to cut them down, and offer- ings are made to them for good luck (Trout ed. 1997b, citing Majupuria 1988. Religious and Useful Plants of Nepal and India. Publ. M. Gupta, India). Also in India, A. farnesiana is used to treat insanity, delirium, ep- ilepsy, convulsions, cholera, carbuncles and rabies; in Algeria it is used as an aphrodisiac and insecticide. A fl ower infusion is known to be stimu- lant, aphrodisiac and antispasmodic; essential oil from the pods is seda- tive, aphrodisiac, muscle-relaxant and cardiac-sedative. The essential oil from the fl owers, ‘cassie oil’, is a popular scent, particularly in France (Nadkarni 1976; Trout ed. 1997b; West & Brown 1920). In Fiji, a bark decoction of A. simplicifolia is used as a purgative, and a cold leaf drink treats stomach ache (Cambie & Ash 1994).
Wattles are becoming better known now for their alkaloid contents. Traditionally used for their tannin content in tanning leather [from spe- cies such as A. pycnantha] in Australia, many species have been shown to yield alkaloids of the tryptamine, phenethylamine, imidazole and pyrro- lidine classes. However, perhaps due to the fi nding of DMT in some spe- cies, alkaloid analyses of Australian Acacia spp. have not been published in any recent years. Despite this, independent researchers have since suc- ceeded in discovering new visionary species that have not undergone for- mal analysis for alkaloids. These discoveries have in some cases result-
T H E G A R D E N O F E D E N T H E P L A N T S A N D A N I M A L S
ed from misidentifi cation, and in some cases from intuitive exploration. Some species also contain cyanogenic glycosides and have poisoned stock animals, so much care should be taken with chemically unknown species. Australian species known to be cyanogenic include A. bineura, A. cheelii, A. deanei, A. dorotoxylon, A. farnesiana, A. glaucescens, A. longifolia and A. oswaldii; others include A. giraffae, A. lasiopetala, A. robusta, A. stolon- ifera and A. tortilis ssp. heteracantha. Flowers, but not leaves, of A. bor- rowi produced hydrocyanic acid [HCN]. A. roemeriana and A. berland- ieri have been reported to be cyanogenic from a fi eld test, though subse- quent work was not able to fi nd any HCN. The cyanogenic glycoside usu- ally present in S. African Acacia spp. is acacipetalin; in Australian species, it is usually sambunigrin. Many Acacia spp. are also regarded as toxic due to their content of tannins, acids such as fl uoroacetic acid, and neurotox- ic amino acids such as djenkolic acid [in seeds] (Conn 1973; Conn et al. 1989; Culvenor 1970; Hungerford 1990; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Acacia spp. also contain a variety of fl avonoids in their heartwoods, which have proven useful indicators in chemotaxonomy (Clarke-Lewis & Dainis 1964; Clarke-Lewis & Porter 1972; Tindale & Roux 1969, 1974), as have the free amino acids present in the seeds (Evans et al. 1977).
Australian Acacia spp. known to have edible seeds [ie. those that have been used as such by native peoples] include A. acuminata, A. aneura, A. ayersiana, A. baileyana, A. beauverdiana, A. burkittii, A. brachystachya, A. confl uens, A. coriacea ssp. sericophylla, A. craspedocarpa, A. cuthbertso- nii, A. dictyophleba, A. dorotoxylon, A. estrophiolata, A. farnesiana, A. ho- losericea, A. inaequilatera, A. jennerae, A. kempeana, A. ligulata, A. lino- phylla, A. macdonnelliensis, A. maitlandii, A. microbotrya, A. murraya- na, A. notabilis, A. olgana, A. omalophylla, A. oswaldii, A. pachyacra, A. palustris, A. pruinocarpa, A. pycnantha, A. ramulosa, A. retinodes, A. ri- valis, A. salicina, A. saligna, A. sclerosperma, A. stenophylla, A. tetragono- phylla, A. tysonii, A. victoriae and A. xiphophylla. Seeds from some spe- cies are simply eaten raw, whilst others are cooked before consumption. Sometimes the unripe pods are steamed and eaten whole. Although seeds of A. cowleana are sometimes eaten raw [after grinding to a paste with water], damper made from them has the reputation of causing headache (Bindon 1996; Maslin et al. 1998).
When identifying Acacia spp., it is worth noting that closely relat- ed species have been known to interbreed, which may complicate both matters of chemistry and positive identifi cation. Also, apparently many Australian Acacia spp. have yet to be identifi ed (New 1984). Results of analyses below reported by White (1944a, 1944c, 1951, 1954, 1957) were all performed on plants growing in New Zealand. White (1944a) noted that high concentrations of phenethylamine tended to be found only in spe- cies with uninerved leaves, and fl owers in racemes [an exception to this is A. acinacea]. Species rich in this alkaloid also tended to contain it in mod- erate quantity in the ripe seed pods (White 1951).
A. acinacea stems and leaves yielded 0.04-0.07% alkaloids in Feb., 0.79-0.82% in Dec.; ripe seed pods yielded 0.08% alkaloids; seeds con- tained 0-traces of alkaloids. The alkaloid mixture consisted largely of
phenethylamine (White 1951).
A. acuminata ssp. acuminata yielded 0.72% alkaloids from stems and leaves, and ssp. burkittii yielded 1.5% [both harv. Oct.]; this appeared to consist mostly of tryptamine, as well as smaller amounts of an unidenti- fi ed phenethylamine-like base, and another unidentifed non-volatile base (White 1957). In an alkaloid screening, leaves of a plant from a nursery in Geelong, Vic. [Australia] gave strong positive results (CSIRO 1990). Recent TLC/GCMS analysis found ssp. acuminata leaves to contain 0.6- 0.8% DMT, and up to 1.6% in bark; young leaves contained almost en- tirely tryptamine. On the other hand, ssp. burkittii was very variable in con- tent, with bark of wild plants yielding 0.2-1.2% DMT, and leaves yielding under 0.1% alkaloids, mostly NMT (Jeremy 2007).
A. adunca [A. accola] stems, leaves, and fl owers [harv. Aug.] yielded 3.2% alkaloids, which appeared to consist of c.70% N-methyl-phenethyl-
amine, with smaller amounts of phenethylamine (White 1957); leaves
from Qld. [Australia] yielded 2.4% N-methyl-phenethylamine (Fitzgerald 1964a).
A. albida leaf has been stated to yield DMT (Shulgin & Shulgin 1997), but this is in error. Traces of 5-methoxy-DMT [5-MeO-DMT] were tenta- tively identifi ed in twigs [harv. Oct.], as well as possibly N-methyltrypt-
amine [NMT] (Trout ed. 1997d). Seeds contain large amounts of albi-
zziine, with lesser amounts of -amino--acetylaminopropionic acid, - amino--oxalylaminopropionic acid, -diaminopropionic acid, djenkol- ic acid, pipecolic acid [homoproline; 2-piperidinecarboxylic acid] and 4- OH-pipecolic acid (Evans et al. 1977).
A. angustissima leaves have yielded 0.028% N-methyl-phenethylamine (Camp & Norvell 1966); roots tested tentatively positive for DMT and 5-
MeO-DMT [harv. Mar.], though a second test was negative. Traces of 5- MeO-DMT were also tentatively detected in seeds. There exists one report
of the use of roots [presumably in an ayahuasca analogue] giving some psychoactivity; others consuming the same material did not report any ef- fects (Trout ed. 1997d). The whole shrub also yielded 7,3’,4’-trihydroxy- fl avonol (Clarke-Lewis & Dainis 1967).
A. argentea [A. leptostachya] leaves have yielded 0.03-0.6% N-cin- namoyl-histamine (Fitzgerald 1964b).
A. auriculiformis leaves have tested positive for alkaloids (Aboriginal Communities 1988); others have tentatively identifi ed 5-MeO-DMT in stem bark [harv. Apr.] (Trout ed. 1997b). Bark also contains a mixture of polyphenols which are mostly polymeric leuco-cyanidins and leuco- delphinidins, which turn red on exposure to light. Heartwood yielded 10% (-)-teracacidin, and lesser amounts of other fl avonoids (Drewes & Roux 1966). Aerial parts have yielded -spinasterol and 0.01% auricu- loside [a fl avan glycoside with mild CNS-depressant activity] (Sahai et al. 1980); funicles have yielded triterpenoid saponins called acaciasides A & B, with antifi larial activity (Ghosh et al. 1993). Fruit pericarps have yielded triterpenoid saponins with spermicidal activity, including acacia- side, proacaciaside-I, proacaciaside-II and acaciamine (Garai & Mahato 1997). Seeds contain large amounts of albizziine, with lesser amounts of S-carboxyethylcysteine, S-carboxyethylcysteine sulphoxide and -amino-