loss in the Zambezi Basin are population growth and poverty, agricultural expan- sion, overreliance on wood energy, un- controlled veldt fires, socio-economic development, and emerging issues such as climate change and invasive alien species.
96
FAO, State of the World’s Forests, 2005 Giga tonne=1 billion tonnes
Table 4.2 TTrends in Carbon Stocks in Forest Biomass
Sub-region
Eastern and Southern Africa Northern Africa
Western and Central Africa Total Africa 1990 15.9 3.8 46.0 65.7 2000 14.8 3.5 43.9 62.2 2005 14.4 3.4 43.1 60.9 Carbon in living biomass (Giga tonnes)
Population Growth and Poverty
Riparian states of the Zambezi Basin are at different stages of economic de- velopment. The region’s economic per- formance has remained fragile as countries continue to be exposed to nat- ural disasters and adverse external shocks. This is partly because most of the economies depend on primary sec- tors of production, underpinning the overriding importance of biological re- sources for their socio-economic devel- opment. The basin’s human population is estimated at over 40 million people and is growing at an average rate of 2.9 percent per year. The population is ex- pected to increase to 51 million by 2025 and urbanization is also expected to grow (SARDC and HBS 2010).
Almost all Basin states face eco- nomic challenges such as external debt, terms of trade and market access, and dependence on single commodities which combine to create an adverse macroeconomic climate. Some socio- economic statistics on the Basin are shown in Table 4.3.
The majority of people in the Basin live in rural areas and depend on unreli- able rain-fed agriculture, livestock rearing, and the exploitation of natural resources for survival. However, increasing urban- ization is affecting consumption pat- terns and increasing the demand for commercial services. All these factors contribute to land degradation, biodi- versity loss and poverty. In Botswana, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, rural communities supplement their incomes through Community Based Natural Re- sources Management (CBNRM) initia- tives based on wildlife, non-timber forest products and ecotourism. However, the economic returns from such initiatives are highly variable due to limited product range and institutional and policy con- straints (SADC 2006).
Agricultural Expansion
The economies of Basin states are agro- based. The countries have many small- holder farmers who depend on rain-fed
agriculture, use very few inputs and re- alize very low crop yields. To achieve food self-sufficiency and become food secure, the farmers resort to the cultiva- tion of marginal land that is less produc- tive. Agricultural expansion results in deforestation, land degradation and bio- diversity loss (SADC 2006).
Table 4.4 shows the link between agricultural expansion and deforestation in five riparian states. Malawi and Zim- babwe experienced large increases in land allocated to agriculture and corre- sponding reductions in the forest area between 1990 and 2005. However, the correlation between agricultural expan- sion and deforestation was weaker in Mozambique and Tanzania.
Over-reliance on Wood Energy
Biomass, especially firewood, is the main energy source for more than 80 percent of the population of riparian states. The use of charcoal is also wide- spread, especially in urban areas in
97 Table 4.3 SSome Socio-Economic Statistics on Riparian States
State Angola Botswana Malawi Mozambique Namibia Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe GDP ($ billions) 9.76 6.50 2.28 4.09 2.82 9.74 4.34 2.20 GDP per capita ($) 696.9 2 796.0 198.0 226.0 1 667.0 266.0 392.0 1 891.0 Population (millions) 14.0 1.7 11.5 18.1 1.8 33.6 10.7 11.6 Urbanization (%) 42.4 46.4 15.0 23.0 27.0 30.0 35.0 33.6
Dewees and others, 2011
Table 4.4 Relationship between Agricultural Expansion and Deforestation
Country Malawi Mozambique Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe 19.8 2.2 2.2 9.8 20.7 -12.7 -7.6 -14.6 -4.7 -22.1 Percentage change: 1990 to 2005 Agricultural Forest land area land area
Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia. Access to modern energy sources is limited for both rural and urban households. For example, access to grid electricity averages only 18.5 per- cent. It is eightpercent in Malawi and 40 percent in Zimbabwe (GoM, 2009; GoZ, 2009). Tobacco is a major cash crop for smallholder farmers in Malawi and Zimbabwe, and this requires signif- icant quantities of wood for curing. An- other energy related cause of deforestation is fish drying along river banks and lakesides in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Communities in these areas also cut trees for the construction of canoes, and temporary fishing camps during the rainy season.
Table 4.5 gives examples of wood energy needs for firewood, charcoal production, tobacco curing and brick firing, which are among the major causes of deforestation in the Basin.
Uncontrolled Wildfires
People have used fire as a land manage- ment tool and for agricultural purposes for thousands of years. However, un- controlled wildfires have become a major threat to the Zambezi Basin’s forests and biodiversity, adversely affect- ing the bio-physical, social and economic environment due to their trail of de- struction that impacts on all sectors of the economy (Nyamadzawo and others 2013). Table 4.6 shows incidents and im- pact of uncontrolled fires in Zimbabwe.
Economic Development
Large-scale infrastructural development and the expansion of settlements into woodland and forest areas are part of national development. However they contribute to deforestation and land degradation. Particular forms of habitat destruction and fragmentation include infrastructure such roads, buildings, set- tlements and development corridors, dams and mines that are being estab- lished in the Basin.
Fragmented habitats caused by infra- structure development and high human population densities increase contact be- tween people and wildlife. This fuels human and wildlife conflict. Free-flow- ing rivers are threatened by the prospect of damming to provide drinking water, irrigation water and power generation. Industrial expansion increases water pollution leading to the poisoning of aquatic life and the proliferation of in- vasive alien species such as water hy- acinth. A new sector of economic development that has impacted upon the basin’s biodiversity during the last decade is the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstocks.